Pedogenic processes are reflected in the effective hydraulic properties in Sphagnum bog profiles

delimited, and horizon-specific soil physical and chemical properties can be specified. This is different for Sphagnum bog peatlands, because Sphagnum mosses grow continually upward in the Acrotelm and leave behind dead plant remnants, which are increasingly decomposed with increasing depth. Thus, a continuous change of soil properties is characteristic for these profiles. To be able to quantify the change of soil hydraulic properties (SHP) with depth in Sphagnum bog profiles, we conducted transient evaporation experiments in the laboratory on a series of samples from the entire profile of the acrotelm. The identified effective pore size densities for Sphagnum are trimodal in the upper part of the acrotelm. We present size classes defining a unifying nomenclature to be used when describing the pore size classes in Sphagnum moss and peat. These size classes refer to the inter-plant pore space which is constituted of the voids between individual mosses, the intra-plant pore space representing the voids between branches and leaves, and the inner-plant pore space which is the space constituted by the water bearing hyaline cells

Comparison of 2D and 3D modeling for deriving effective hydraulic properties of stony soils

Stone, gravel or rock fragments that are embedded in a matrix of fine soil have a substantial effect on effective soil hydraulic and transport properties. Understanding the role of stones in soils is important not only for soil water transport processes such as infiltration, evaporation and redistribution, but also for related solute transport processes. A variety of models has been proposed in the past to predict the systematic effect of varying amounts of stones on effective saturated conductivity and water retention of a soil-stone mixture. Respective studies for unsaturated hydraulic conductivity are still missing. To test the accuracy and validity of such predictive models, and to expand them to unsaturated conductivity, the investigation of virtual porous media, which can be obtained by numerical forward modeling of water and solute transport in soil-stone mixtures is the method of choice. Furthermore, to test the postulate that effective homogeneous properties exist and can replace the heterogeneous system, the ability of a 1D model with assumed homogeneous soil properties to match “observed” state variables and fluxes of a higher-dimensional heterogeneous model under a variety of conditions is a necessary requirement. With few exceptions, such heterogeneous modeling studies have hitherto been performed only for simplified cases, i.e., either under fully saturated conditions, or with a reduced dimensionality, i.e., 2D simulations of soil/stone mixtures. In this work, we use the simulation tool HYDRUS-2D3D to investigate the systematic differences that occur when modeling partially unsaturated transient water in stony soils, based on the Richards equation. Specifically, we compare truly 3D with 2D simulations and discuss the implications for effective 1D hydraulic properties

Habitat Characteristics of Polar Bear Terrestrial Maternal Den Sites in Northern Alaska

Polar bears (Ursus maritimus) give birth to and nurture their young in dens of ice and snow. During 1999-2001, we measured the structure of 22 dens on the coastal plain of northern Alaska after polar bear families had evacuated their dens in the spring. During the summers of 2001 and 2002, we revisited the sites of 42 maternal and autumn exploratory dens and recorded characteristics of the under-snow habitat. The structure of polar bear snow dens was highly variable. Most were simple chambers with a single entrance/egress tunnel. Others had multiple chambers and additional tunnels. Thickness of snow above and below dens was highly variable, but most dens were overlain by less than 1 m of snow. Dens were located on, or associated with, pronounced landscape features (primarily coastal and river banks, but also a lake shore and an abandoned oil field gravel pad) that are readily distinguished from the surrounding terrain in summer and catch snow in early winter. Although easily identified, den landforms in northern Alaska were more subtle than den habitats in many other parts of the Arctic. The structure of polar bear dens in Alaska was strikingly similar to that of dens elsewhere and has remained largely unchanged in northern Alaska for more than 25 years. Knowledge of den structure and site characteristics will allow resource managers to identify habitats with the greatest probability of holding dens. This information may assist resource managers in preventing negative impacts of mineral exploration and extraction on polar bears.Les ourses polaires (Ursus maritimus) donnent naissance et nourrissent leurs petits dans des tanières de glace et de neige. De 1999 à 2001, on a mesuré la structure de 22 tanières situées sur la plaine côtière de l'Alaska septentrional après que les familles d'ours polaires eurent évacué leurs tanières au printemps. Au cours des étés de 2001 et de 2002, on s'est à nouveau rendus sur les sites de 42 tanières de mise bas et d'exploration automnale et on a mesuré les caractéristiques de l'habitat situé au-dessous de la neige. La structure des tanières d'ourses polaires variait considérablement. La plupart étaient de simples cavités qui possédaient un tunnel servant à la fois d'entrée et de sortie. D'autres comportaient plusieurs salles et des tunnels supplémentaires. L'épaisseur de la neige au-dessus et au-dessous des tanières était très variable, mais dans la plupart des cas, la couverture de neige était inférieure à 1 m. Les tanières étaient situées sur des reliefs prononcés ou y étaient associées (surtout les rives côtières ou les berges de fleuves, mais aussi le bord d'un lac et le remblai de gravier d'un champ pétrolifère abandonné), qui se détachent nettement du paysage alentour en été et qui retiennent la neige au début de l'hiver. Même si elles étaient facilement identifiables, les formes de relief propices à l'établissement de tanières dans l'Alaska septentrional étaient plus discrètes que les habitats de tanières situés dans bien d'autres régions de l'Arctique. La structure des tanières d'ourses polaires en Alaska offrait une ressemblance frappante avec celle des tanières creusées ailleurs et elle est restée largement inchangée dans le nord de l'Alaska pendant plus de 25 ans. Les connaissances sur la structure des tanières et les caractéristiques des sites permettront aux gestionnaires de ressources de distinguer les habitats qui sont le plus susceptibles d'abriter des tanières. Cette information peut aider ces gestionnaires à prévenir les retombées négatives sur l'ours polaire de l'exploration et de l'exploitation minières

Quantifizierung von kapillarem Fluss, Filmfluss und Dampffluss durch inverse Simulation transienter Verdunstungsexperimente

Die Evaporation aus dem unbewachsenen Boden ist eine wichtige Komponente im Wasserhaushalt und der Energiebilanz der Erdoberfläche, insbesondere in ariden und semiariden Gebieten mit geringer Vegetationsdichte. Die Modellierung des Wasserflusses in trockenen Böden und die Vorhersage von realer Evaporation und Grundwasserneubildung stellen eine ständige Herausforderung für die Bodenhydrologie dar und erfordern angemessene Modellkonzepte und Parametrisierungen der bodenhydraulischen Funktionen. Während die Berücksichtigung des Wasserdampftransports in trockenen porösen Medien inzwischen häufig erfolgt, steckt die Parametrisierung der hydraulischen Leitfähigkeitsfunktion im mittleren Wasserspannungsbereich noch immer in den Kinderschuhen und basiert in den meisten Fällen weiterhin auf der Anwendung von Kapillarbündelmodellen und wenigen Datensätzen aus der Literatur mit teilweise eingeschränkter Qualität. Prozesse wie Film- und Eckenfluss wurden zwar an Hand einiger weniger Datensätze untersucht, werden jedoch in der Modellierung von Wasser- und Energieflüssen kaum berücksichtigt. In diesem Beitrag zeigen wir Daten aus transienten Verdunstungsversuchen an großen gepackten Bodensäulen mit erweiterter Instrumentierung in den trockenen Bereich, die mit der Methode der inversen Modellierung prozessbasiert ausgewertet wurden. Es wird untersucht, welche Parametrisierung der hydraulischen Leitfähigkeit zu einer korrekten Beschreibung der Zeitreihen der Wasserspannung führt. Die Analyse wird durch gekoppelte Simulationen des Wasser-, Dampf- und Wärmetransports erweitert. Die Ergebnisse zeigen eindeutig das Scheitern klassischer Parametrisierungen der bodenhydraulischen Funktionen im mittleren und trockenen Bereich. Eine korrekte Beschreibung der Messdaten war nur durch Hinzunahme einer weiteren Komponente in der hydraulischen Leitfähigkeitsfunktion möglich, deren physikalische Ursache wahrscheinlich der Film- und Eckenfluss ist

Die integrale Suspensions-Druck-Methode (ISP) -- ein neues Verfahren zur präzisen und automatisierten Schlämmkornanalyse

Die Schlämmkornanalyse ist ein Verfahren, um die Partikelgrößenverteilung von Böden in der Schluff- und Tonfraktion zu bestimmen. Hierbei wird auf Grundlage des Stokes'schen Gesetzes die Partikelgröße aus der Absetzgeschwindigkeit in einer wässrigen Suspension abgeleitet. Bisher gab es zwei etablierte Methoden zur Schlämmkornanalyse: das Pipettverfahren und das Aräometerverfahren. Beide Verfahren beruhen darauf, die zeitliche Änderung der Partikelkonzentration oder Dichte der Suspension in einer bestimmten Tiefe innerhalb der Suspension zu messen. Wir haben eine neuen Methode entwickelt, die auf einer Druckmessung in der Suspension in einer ausgewählten Tiefe basiert. Dieser Druck ist ein integrales Maß für alle Partikel in Suspension oberhalb der Meßtiefe. Wir simulieren die Druckabnahme aufgrund des Absetzens von Partikeln als Funktion der Partikelgrößenverteilung und versuchen durch Variation der Verteilungsparameter eine bestmögliche Anpassung an die Messdaten zu erreichen (inverse Simulation mit globaler Optimierung). Die neue Methode liefert die Partikelgrößenverteilung in sehr hoher Auflösung. Die experimentelle Realisierung vermeidet im Gegensatz zu Pipett- und Aräometermethode jegliche Störung durch den Messvorgang. Eine Sensitivitätsanalyse für verschiedenen Materialien zeigt, dass das Verfahren die Schlufffraktionen präzise bestimmt. Bei Vorgabe von Sandfraktionen aus der Siebung ist entsprechend auch die Schätzung der Tonfraktion sehr genau

Prüfung von Perkolations- und Elutionsversuchen zur Schadstofffreisetzung aus mineralischen Ersatzbaustoffen

In einem groß angelegten Ringversuch wurden die DIN-Normen DIN 19528 und DIN 19529 verifiziert. In dieser Arbeit haben wir die darin vorgesehenen Experimente durchgeführt, das Versuchsprogramm erweitert und die Ergebnisse mittels verschiedener mathematischer Verfahren ausgewertet. Schüttelversuche, wie in DIN 19529 vorgesehen, haben wir durch Ansätze mit weiteren Wasser-/Feststoffverhältnissen erweitert. Diese Ergebnisse wurden zur Ermittlung der das Verteilungsverhalten bestimmenden Parameter mittels MuBaX (Iden und Durner, 2007) ausgewertet. Die Säulenversuche nach DIN 19528 wurden ebenfalls in ihrer zeitlichen Dauer erweitert und durch Fließunterbrechungen ergänzt. Für die Abschätzung der kurz- bis mittelfristigen Freisetzungen wurden reproduzierbare und zwischen den unterschiedlichen Methoden vergleichbare Ergebnisse erzielt

Prediction of absolute unsaturated hydraulic conductivity – comparison of four different capillary bundle models

To model water, solute, and energy transport in porous media, it is essential to have accurate information about the soil hydraulic properties (SHPs), i.e., the water retention curve (WRC) and the soil hydraulic conductivity curve (HCC). It is important to have reliable data to parameterize these models, but equally critical is the selection of appropriate SHP models. While various expressions for the WRC are frequently compared, the capillary conductivity model proposed by Mualem (1976a) is widely used but rarely compared to alternatives. The objective of this study was to compare four different capillary bundle models in terms of their ability to accurately predict the HCC without scaling the conductivity function by a measured conductivity value. The four capillary bundle models include two simple models proposed by Burdine (1953) and Alexander and Skaggs (1986), which assume a bundle of parallel capillaries with tortuous flow paths, and two more sophisticated models based on statistical cut-and-random-rejoin approaches, namely those proposed by Childs and Collis-George (1950) and the aforementioned model of Mualem (1976a). To examine how the choice of the WRC parameterization affects the adequacy of different capillary bundle models, we utilized four different capillary saturation models in combination with each of the conductivity prediction models, resulting in 16 SHP model schemes. All schemes were calibrated using 12 carefully selected data sets that provided water retention and hydraulic conductivity data over a wide saturation range. Subsequently, the calibrated models were tested and rated by their ability to predict the hydraulic conductivity of 23 independent data sets of soils with varying textures. The statistical cut-and-random-rejoin models, particularly the Mualem (1976a) model, outperformed the simpler capillary bundle models in terms of predictive accuracy. This was independent of the specific WRC model used. Our findings suggest that the widespread use of the Mualem model is justified.</p

Post-stroke inhibition of induced NADPH oxidase type 4 prevents oxidative stress and neurodegeneration

Ischemic stroke is the second leading cause of death worldwide. Only one moderately effective therapy exists, albeit with contraindications that exclude 90% of the patients. This medical need contrasts with a high failure rate of more than 1,000 pre-clinical drug candidates for stroke therapies. Thus, there is a need for translatable mechanisms of neuroprotection and more rigid thresholds of relevance in pre-clinical stroke models. One such candidate mechanism is oxidative stress. However, antioxidant approaches have failed in clinical trials, and the significant sources of oxidative stress in stroke are unknown. We here identify NADPH oxidase type 4 (NOX4) as a major source of oxidative stress and an effective therapeutic target in acute stroke. Upon ischemia, NOX4 was induced in human and mouse brain. Mice deficient in NOX4 (Nox4(-/-)) of either sex, but not those deficient for NOX1 or NOX2, were largely protected from oxidative stress, blood-brain-barrier leakage, and neuronal apoptosis, after both transient and permanent cerebral ischemia. This effect was independent of age, as elderly mice were equally protected. Restoration of oxidative stress reversed the stroke-protective phenotype in Nox4(-/-) mice. Application of the only validated low-molecular-weight pharmacological NADPH oxidase inhibitor, VAS2870, several hours after ischemia was as protective as deleting NOX4. The extent of neuroprotection was exceptional, resulting in significantly improved long-term neurological functions and reduced mortality. NOX4 therefore represents a major source of oxidative stress and novel class of drug target for stroke therapy

Ethylene supports colonization of plant roots by the mutualistic fungus Piriformospora indica

The mutualistic basidiomycete Piriformospora indica colonizes roots of mono- and dicotyledonous plants, and thereby improves plant health and yield. Given the capability of P. indica to colonize a broad range of hosts, it must be anticipated that the fungus has evolved efficient strategies to overcome plant immunity and to establish a proper environment for nutrient acquisition and reproduction. Global gene expression studies in barley identified various ethylene synthesis and signaling components that were differentially regulated in P. indica-colonized roots. Based on these findings we examined the impact of ethylene in the symbiotic association. The data presented here suggest that P. indica induces ethylene synthesis in barley and Arabidopsis roots during colonization. Moreover, impaired ethylene signaling resulted in reduced root colonization, Arabidopsis mutants exhibiting constitutive ethylene signaling, -synthesis or ethylene-related defense were hyper-susceptible to P. indica. Our data suggest that ethylene signaling is required for symbiotic root colonization by P. indica

Mechanisms controlling anaemia in Trypanosoma congolense infected mice.

Trypanosoma congolense are extracellular protozoan parasites of the blood stream of artiodactyls and are one of the main constraints on cattle production in Africa. In cattle, anaemia is the key feature of disease and persists after parasitaemia has declined to low or undetectable levels, but treatment to clear the parasites usually resolves the anaemia. The progress of anaemia after Trypanosoma congolense infection was followed in three mouse strains. Anaemia developed rapidly in all three strains until the peak of the first wave of parasitaemia. This was followed by a second phase, characterized by slower progress to severe anaemia in C57BL/6, by slow recovery in surviving A/J and a rapid recovery in BALB/c. There was no association between parasitaemia and severity of anaemia. Furthermore, functional T lymphocytes are not required for the induction of anaemia, since suppression of T cell activity with Cyclosporin A had neither an effect on the course of infection nor on anaemia. Expression of genes involved in erythropoiesis and iron metabolism was followed in spleen, liver and kidney tissues in the three strains of mice using microarrays. There was no evidence for a response to erythropoietin, consistent with anaemia of chronic disease, which is erythropoietin insensitive. However, the expression of transcription factors and genes involved in erythropoiesis and haemolysis did correlate with the expression of the inflammatory cytokines Il6 and Ifng. The innate immune response appears to be the major contributor to the inflammation associated with anaemia since suppression of T cells with CsA had no observable effect. Several transcription factors regulating haematopoiesis, Tal1, Gata1, Zfpm1 and Klf1 were expressed at consistently lower levels in C57BL/6 mice suggesting that these mice have a lower haematopoietic capacity and therefore less ability to recover from haemolysis induced anaemia after infection