The Effects of Women\u27s Attitudes Towards Divorce on Marital Instability in Rural Malawi

Poster Presentation Some women in sub-Saharan Africa have successfully managed to promote their own agenda using marital strategies and, in return, have gained greater control over their lives. While we know which factors are likely to predict a union dissolution, we know little about the effects of women\u27s attitudes toward divorce on marital stability in sub-Saharan Africa. To bridge this gap, we use data from the Malawi Longitudinal Study on Family and Health and between 1998 and 2008 to assess the effects of women’s attitude toward divorce on a series of contexts carrying large social and economic implications for a woman in rural Malawi. We use event history analyses to model the risk of divorce over union duration across three attitudinal levels, regions, and by birth cohort. We also use logistic regression analyses to capture the effects of women’s attitudes and socio-demographic and marital characteristics known to have an effect on divorce. Our results show that, overall, a more permissive attitude towards divorce is associated with a greater likelihood of divorce. We also find a variation in the odds of divorcing by contexts, which are influenced by traditional practices, and social norms

Ruptures d'union en région rurale au Malawi : attitude des femmes vis-à-vis du divorce et sérodiscordance du VIH des couples

L’Afrique subsaharienne est la région du monde où les cas d’infections au virus de l’immunodéficience humaine (VIH) sont les plus nombreux. Le Programme commun des Nations Unies sur le VIH/SIDA (ONUSIDA) de 2015 estime à 19 millions le nombre de personnes infectées par le virus. Les femmes sont plus touchées que les hommes en raison des inégalités entre les sexes et de la discrimination à laquelle elles font face, notamment au niveau de l’accès aux ressources financières. Dans les sociétés où le mariage est universel, des études ont montré que les femmes utilisent le divorce en termes de stratégie de protection contre la transmission du VIH par leur partenaire ayant un comportement sexuel à risque. Ceci pourrait contribuer à éviter une infection par le VIH. L’étude des parcours de vie des femmes mariées permet de comprendre les comportements et les enjeux associés aux infections par le VIH. Peu de travaux ont porté sur la relation entre le divorce et le VIH, notamment parce que les données sur les unions passées et sur les couples ne sont généralement pas disponibles. Dans cette thèse, nous utilisons les données du Malawi Longitudinal Study on Family and Health (MLSFH). Nous visons à approfondir les dynamiques relatives aux parcours matrimoniaux des femmes et des hommes en Afrique subsaharienne dans le contexte de l’épidémie du VIH, généralisée dans la région. Il s’agit d’une enquête longitudinale de grande envergure dans trois régions rurales. Elle porte sur les comportements et les enjeux associés à la santé reproductive et sexuelle et collecte de l’information sur des marqueurs biologiques pour les femmes mariées et leurs partenaires. Les données du projet sont pertinentes pour nos recherches car elles nous donnent accès à l’historique des unions des deux partenaires ainsi qu’à des caractéristiques sociodémographiques au fil du temps. De plus, tous les répondants et leurs conjoints actuels se sont vus offrir des tests de dépistage du VIH lors d’au moins un passage de l’enquête. Cette thèse contribue à la littérature sur les ruptures d’union et les infections par le VIH en Afrique subsaharienne en poursuivant deux objectifs. Le premier objectif est d’établir si l’attitude des femmes vis-à-vis du divorce est liée à la rupture de leur première union. Nous utilisons pour ce faire une approche longitudinale (modèle de survie en temps discret) où les caractéristiques prédisant la séparation sont mesurées alors que le couple est toujours uni, soit quelques années avant qu’une éventuelle séparation ne survienne. Notre intérêt est d’approfondir le rôle de l’attitude des femmes face au divorce dans certaines situations bien précises sous l’hypothèse que cette attitude traduit, d’une part, leur niveau d’autonomie perçu et, d’autre part, les normes sociales associées au divorce. Nous utilisons l’attitude des femmes vis-à-vis du divorce mesurée dans cinq situations hypothétiques: 1) lorsque le soutien financier du mari à sa femme et à ses enfants est insuffisant; 2) en cas de violence conjugale; 3) en cas d’infidélité sexuelle de la part du mari 4) lorsqu’une femme pense que son mari est infecté par le VIH; et 5) lorsqu’un mari interdit à sa femme d’utiliser toutes méthodes de contraception. Finalement, les attitudes d’une femme à l’égard du divorce jouent un rôle limité sur sa probabilité de divorcer. L’effet de l’attitude dans deux des cinq situations est toutefois significatif. En effet, cette étude démontre que la probabilité de divorce augmente pour les femmes qui croient que la violence conjugale est un motif justifiable pour rompre une union. Par contre, la probabilité de divorce diminue pour les femmes ayant une opinion favorable vis-à-vis du divorce en cas de suspicion de l’infection par le VIH chez le mari. D’autres caractéristiques matrimoniales sont associées à de plus grandes chances de divorce, dont le lieu de résidence à la suite du mariage (patrilocal, matrilocal ou néolocal) et, la différence d’âge entre les époux. Le deuxième objectif de cette thèse est d’étudier la relation entre les parcours matrimoniaux et le statut sérologique du VIH des couples. Ce genre d’étude est rarement possible faute de données à la fois sur les parcours matrimoniaux et sur le VIH. Nous utilisons d’abord des techniques de base de l’analyse séquentielle pour rendre compte des différents parcours et mettre en évidence leurs différentes caractéristiques. Les résultats des analyses statistiques (modèles logit multinomial) démontrent ensuite que les couples cumulant un plus grand nombre de ruptures d’unions ont plus de chances de se retrouver dans une union sérodiscordante, particulièrement chez un couple où seule la femme vit avec le VIH. Des indicateurs relatifs au mariage, tels que le type d’union (monogame ou polygame) et le lieu de résidence à la suite du mariage, expliquent aussi fortement le statut sérologique du couple. Nos résultats ont d’importantes implications sur le plan politique alors que les nombreux États membres de l’ONU se sont engagés vers les nouveaux Objectifs de développement durable. Parmi ces objectifs se retrouvent la promotion des droits des femmes et la réduction du nombre de nouvelles infections au VIH, deux thèmes qui ressortent de nos recherches. Notamment, nous désirons attirer l’attention vers la poursuite de la lutte contre la violence faite aux femmes en orientant les programmes de sensibilisation de sorte que les garçons et les hommes y soient directement impliqués. Leur engagement est nécessaire pour s’attaquer aux pratiques culturelles où la violence est tolérée et, par le fait même, travailler vers les changements des mentalités et des normes de genre. Finalement, des tests de dépistage du VIH sur une base régulière devraient être recommandés dans le but de détecter les nouvelles infections le plus rapidement possible et éviter de nouveaux cas. Cette recommandation est autant valable pour les célibataires que pour les couples alors qu’une infection peut se produire lors de relations sexuelles extraconjugales non protégées. Une diminution de la violence faite aux femmes contribuera à éliminer la vulnérabilité des femmes et limiter leur exposition aux risques d’infection par le VIH.Sub-Saharan Africa is the region of the world where cases of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infections are the most numerous. The 2015 Joint United Nations Program on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS) estimated that 19 million people were infected with the virus. Women are more affected than men because of visible gender inequalities in, among other things, access to and discrimination against financial resources. In societies where marriage is universal, women can use divorce as a strategy to protect from an HIV infected partner who has risky sexual behaviours, thus avoiding an HIV infection. Marital trajectories thus become an important determinant in understanding HIV infections for married women and the challenges associated with HIV infections. However, the relationship between divorce and HIV infections remains inconclusive, partly because of the lack of information on individuals’ past unions to determine the effects of divorce on the risk of HIV infection for couples. In this thesis, we use data from the Malawi Longitudinal Study on Family and Health (MLSFH) project to better understand the effects of marital trajectories of women and men in the context of the HIV epidemic in sub-Saharan Africa. The MLSFH project is a large-scale longitudinal survey on behaviours related to sexual and reproductive health and it collects HIV biomarkers for all participants in three rural areas of Malawi. The project data is relevant to our research as it gives access to participants’ marital history and to socioemographic characteristics over time. Furthermore, all respondents and their spouses were offered HIV tests at one survey wave at least. This thesis contributes to the literature on divorce and HIV infections in sub-Saharan Africa by exploring two main objectives. First, we determine whether women's attitudes toward divorce are related to the subsequent divorce of women in a first marriage. More specifically, we use a longitudinal approach (discrete-time logistic regression) to study the factors associated to divorce. Our interest is to better understand the role of women’s attitudes towards divorce, which reflects their level of perceived autonomy and the social norms associated with divorce. In particular, we use women's attitudes towards divorce in five situations: 1) lack of financial support from the husband to the wife and their children, 2) domestic violence against women, 3) spousal infidelity, 4) the wife’s suspicion of her husband infection with HIV and 5) when a husband does not allow family planning. The statistical analyses we conducted show that women’s attitudes towards divorce have little predicting power over divorce, except for domestic violence. The likelihood of divorce increases for women who believe that spousal violence is a justifiable reason for divorce. On the other hand, the likelihood of divorce decreases for women with a favourable opinion towards divorce in the event of suspicion of spousal HIV infection. Other marital characteristics are associated with greater likelihood of divorce, including place of residence after marriage (matrilocal, patrilocal and neolocal) and age difference between spouses. Second, we explore the marital trajectories through which married couples become HIV serodiscordant, and their implications for HIV prevention. This is particularly important as the majority of new HIV infections in Malawi occur among heterosexual couples. The MLSFH data are among the few that allow reconstructing the marital histories of both partners in a couple. We use a basic sequential analysis approach to identify the most common trajectories for couples and to highlight the different characteristics of the trajectories. We find that couples who have a greater number of union dissolutions are more likely to be in a HIV serodiscordant union particularly for female positive discordant couples. Other marriage related indicators such as the type of union and residence after marriage and number of sexual partners are also highly relevant in explaining the couple’s HIV status. Our results have important political implications as the UN Member States have committed themselves to the new Sustainable Development Goals. These goals include the promotion of women's rights and the reduction of new HIV infections, two topics emerging from our research. In particular, we wish to draw attention to fight against domestic violence by raising awareness to involve boys and men. Their commitment is needed to address cultural practices where violence is tolerated and to work towards changing attitudes and gender norms. Finally, repeated HIV testing should be recommended in order to detect new infections as quickly as possible and avoid new cases. This recommendation goes for singles as well as couples in which partners engage in unprotected extramarital sex. Addressing violence against women is important to limit their vulnerability and decrease their risk of HIV infection

Policy Brief No. 20 - The Oldest Old: A New Reality in Canada\u27s Population

Canadians aged 85 and over (the oldest old) form a distinct group which is destined to grow as a proportion of the country’s population. This is a demographic reality which needs to be taken into account in policy making

Canada\u27s Oldest Old: A Population Group which is Fast Growing, Poorly Apprehended and at Risk from Lack of Appropriate Services

The future of population aging in industrialised countries, including Canada, will be driven not by lower fertility but by extensions in life expectancy. Declining mortality will have the most effect on the oldest age groups. In this context, Peter Laslett’s (1989) ideas on rethinking traditional approaches to the life cycle are fundamental. He argues that we need to move from three stages of life to four: childhood; adulthood; then the new third age lasting from retirement until old age, which becomes the fourth age (or the oldest-old). This report examines the present and future characteristics of the oldest old, and the public policies needed to ensure their well-being. The Canadians in this oldest age group are a distinct population, which will come to represent an increasingly important component of the population. This new demographic reality needs to be taken into consideration in designing structures that will meet the associated challenges. The arrival, rapid and in large numbers, of Baby Boomers into these advanced ages will generate new dynamics in the society that need to be studied. Given the changes in behaviours and the health status of the oldest people today, it is vitally important to continue to design policies that take into account the characteristics of the aged in the populations of today and of tomorrow. Key is to continue to develop policies which will enable older people to remain independent for as long as possible, and to base policies on the degree of independence rather than simple age thresholds. The promotion of healthy and positive attitudes towards older people will also contribute to good relations among generations

Les oldest-olds canadiens : une population en pleine croissance, mal connue et à risque de manquer de services adéquats

Dans les pays industrialisés, et au Canada en particulier, le vieillissement ne sera plus dynamisé par la baisse de la fécondité, mais bien par l’allongement de la vie. Cette baisse de la mortalité sera surtout aux grands âges. Dans ce contexte, les réflexions de Peter Laslett (1989) et sa remise en question de l’approche traditionnelle du cycle de vie sont fondamentales. De trois étapes, il a montré le bien fondé de passer à quatre : l’enfance, les âges adultes, le nouveau troisième âge, qui va de la retraite à la vieillesse, qui devient le quatrième âge. Ce rapport s’intéresse aux caractéristiques présentes et futures des oldest-olds et aux politiques publiques qui sont mises en place pour leur assurer un bien-être. Les Canadiens très âgés forment une population distincte, appelée à prendre une place de plus en plus grandissante au pays. Il faut considérer cette réalité démographique nouvelle dans l’élaboration des politiques publiques. L’arrivée, rapide et en grand nombre, des Baby-Boomers à des âges très élevés générera de nouveaux enjeux de société qui se doivent d’être étudiés. Étant donné les nouveaux comportements et l’état de santé des personnes à des âges élevés de nos jours, il est primordial de continuer à élaborer des politiques publiques tenant compte des caractéristiques des personnes âgées et très âgées d’aujourd’hui et de demain. Il ne faut cependant pas diminuer les efforts mis dans l’élaboration de politiques publiques pour répondre le plus adéquatement possible à leurs besoins et leur permettre de demeurer le plus autonome possible et cela le plus longtemps possible. De plus, la promotion d’une attitude saine et positive envers les aînés contribuera à des relations saines entre les générations

A Conserved EAR Motif Is Required for Avirulence and Stability of the Ralstonia solanacearum Effector PopP2 In Planta

(extract) Overall, this study reveals high conservation of the PopP2 effector in Korean R. solanacearum strains isolated from commercially cultivated tomato and pepper genotypes. Importantly, our data also indicate that the PopP2 conserved repressor motif could contribute to the effector accumulation in plant cells

Autoacetylation of the Ralstonia solanacearum Effector PopP2 Targets a Lysine Residue Essential for RRS1-R-Mediated Immunity in Arabidopsis

Type III effector proteins from bacterial pathogens manipulate components of host immunity to suppress defence responses and promote pathogen development. In plants, host proteins targeted by some effectors called avirulence proteins are surveyed by plant disease resistance proteins referred to as “guards”. The Ralstonia solanacearum effector protein PopP2 triggers immunity in Arabidopsis following its perception by the RRS1-R resistance protein. Here, we show that PopP2 interacts with RRS1-R in the nucleus of living plant cells. PopP2 belongs to the YopJ-like family of cysteine proteases, which share a conserved catalytic triad that includes a highly conserved cysteine residue. The catalytic cysteine mutant PopP2-C321A is impaired in its avirulence activity although it is still able to interact with RRS1-R. In addition, PopP2 prevents proteasomal degradation of RRS1-R, independent of the presence of an integral PopP2 catalytic core. A liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry analysis showed that PopP2 displays acetyl-transferase activity leading to its autoacetylation on a particular lysine residue, which is well conserved among all members of the YopJ family. These data suggest that this lysine residue may correspond to a key binding site for acetyl-coenzyme A required for protein activity. Indeed, mutation of this lysine in PopP2 abolishes RRS1-R-mediated immunity. In agreement with the guard hypothesis, our results favour the idea that activation of the plant immune response by RRS1-R depends not only on the physical interaction between the two proteins but also on its perception of PopP2 enzymatic activity

An RxLR effector from phytophthora infestans prevents re-localisation of two plant NAC transcription factors from the endoplasmic reticulum to the nucleus

The plant immune system is activated following the perception of exposed, essential and invariant microbial molecules that are recognised as non-self. A major component of plant immunity is the transcriptional induction of genes involved in a wide array of defence responses. In turn, adapted pathogens deliver effector proteins that act either inside or outside plant cells to manipulate host processes, often through their direct action on plant protein targets. To date, few effectors have been shown to directly manipulate transcriptional regulators of plant defence. Moreover, little is known generally about the modes of action of effectors from filamentous (fungal and oomycete) plant pathogens. We describe an effector, called Pi03192, from the late blight pathogen Phytophthora infestans, which interacts with a pair of host transcription factors at the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) inside plant cells. We show that these transcription factors are released from the ER to enter the nucleus, following pathogen perception, and are important in restricting disease. Pi03192 prevents the plant transcription factors from accumulating in the host nucleus, revealing a novel means of enhancing host susceptibility

An initial event in insect innate immune response: structural and biological studies of interactions between β-1,3-glucan and the N-terminal domain of β-1,3-glucan recognition protein

In response to invading microorganisms, insect β-1,3-glucan recognition protein (βGRP), a soluble receptor in the hemolymph, binds to the surfaces of bacteria and fungi and activates serine protease cascades that promote destruction of pathogens by means of melanization or expression of antimicrobial peptides. Here we report on the NMR solution structure of the N-terminal domain of βGRP (N-βGRP) from Indian meal moth (Plodia interpunctella), which is sufficient to activate the prophenoloxidase (proPO) pathway resulting in melanin formation. NMR and isothermal calorimetric titrations of N-βGRP with laminarihexaose, a glucose hexamer containing β-1,3 links, suggest a weak binding of the ligand. However, addition of laminarin, a glucose polysaccharide (~ 6 kDa) containing β-1,3 and β-1,6 links that activates the proPO pathway, to N-βGRP results in the loss of NMR cross-peaks from the backbone 15N-1H groups of the protein, suggesting the formation of a large complex. Analytical ultra centrifugation (AUC) studies of formation of N-βGRP:laminarin complex show that ligand-binding induces sel-fassociation of the protein:carbohydrate complex into a macro structure, likely containing six protein and three laminarin molecules (~ 102 kDa). The macro complex is quite stable, as it does not undergo dissociation upon dilution to sub-micromolar concentrations. The structural model thus derived from the present studies for N-βGRP:laminarin complex in solution differs from the one in which a single N-βGRP molecule has been proposed to bind to a triple helical form of laminarin on the basis of an X-ray crystallographic structure of N-βGRP:laminarihexaose complex [Kanagawa, M., Satoh, T., Ikeda, A., Adachi, Y., Ohno, N., and Yamaguchi, Y. (2011) J. Biol. Chem. 286, 29158-29165]. AUC studies and phenoloxidase activation measurements carried out with the designed mutants of N-βGRP indicate that electrostatic interactions involving Asp45, Arg54, and Asp68 between the ligand-bound protein molecules contribute in part to the stability of N-βGRP:laminarin macro complex and that a decreased stability is accompanied by a reduced activation of the proPO pathway. Increased β-1,6 branching in laminarin also results in destabilization of the macro complex. These novel findings suggest that ligand-induced self-association of βGRP:β-1,3-glucan complex may form a platform on a microbial surface for recruitment of downstream proteases, as a means of amplification of the initial signal of pathogen recognition for the activation of the proPO pathway

Roadmap for future research on plant pathogen effectors

Bacterial and eukaryotic plant pathogens deliver effector proteins into plant cells to promote pathogenesis. Bacterial pathogens containing type III protein secretion systems are known to inject many of these effectors into plant cells. More recently, oomycete pathogens have been shown to possess a large family of effectors containing the RXLR motif, and many effectors are also being discovered in fungal pathogens. Although effector activities are largely unknown, at least a subset suppress plant immunity. A plethora of new plant pathogen genomes that will soon be available thanks to next-generation sequencing technologies will allow the identification of many more effectors. This article summarizes the key approaches used to identify plant pathogen effectors, many of which will continue to be useful for future effector discovery. Thus, it can be viewed as a ‘roadmap’ for effector and effector target identification. Because effectors can be used as tools to elucidate components of innate immunity, advances in our understanding of effectors and their targets should lead to improvements in agriculture