Nanoparticle Characterization - Supplementary Comparison on Nanoparticle Size

Nanoparticles with size in the range from 10 nm to 300 nm and from three different materials (Au 10 nm, Ag 20 nm, and PSL 30 nm, 100 nm and 300 nm) were used in this supplementary comparison. The selected nanoparticles meet the requirements of different measurement methods such as Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM), Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM), Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), Dynamic Light Scattering (DLS), and Differential Mobility Analyzer (DMA), Small Angle X-Ray Scattering and for forth.All 37 participating laboratories returned results, but not all laboratories were able to perform measurement of all 5 nanoparticles.In order to determine the degree of equivalence (DOE), two reference values were considered in this comparison: the method dependent reference value (MRV) and the global reference value (GRV). The MRVs were determined for different measurement methods according to the corresponding reported uncertainties and measurement values from the participants. Each measurement method owns its own MRV. Since the measurement data from DLS were very different from and inconsistent with the measurement data from the other methods, the MRV for DLS was used in the En number calculation for the measurement data reported from the DLS method. The GRV was determined from the MRVs and their uncertainties of all the measurement methods except DLS, and was applied in the En number calculations for the measurement data reported from AFM, EM, DMA and SAXS methods.The assumption that the particles are spherical was commonly made in the nanoparticle measurements. Non-sphericity of particles, if exists, could have different impacts on different measurement methods. It is also important to note that the methods used are measuring mean diameters of a population of particles, not just a single particle, and that the meaning of the mean diameter could differ for different methods. Probably if participants include a different specific contribution in the uncertainty in a harmonized way, taking the non-cancelled method-dependent "systematic" errors into account, it may be easier to compare the results

Opioid Actions in Primary-Afferent Fibers—Involvement in Analgesia and Anesthesia

Opioids inhibit glutamatergic excitatory transmission from the periphery by activating G-protein coupled opioid receptors in the central terminals of primary-afferent neurons in the spinal substantia gelatinosa, resulting in antinociception. Opioid receptor activation in the peripheral terminals of primary-afferent neurons inhibits the production of action potentials in response to nociceptive stimuli given to the periphery, leading to antinociception. Opioids also exhibit a local anesthetic effect without opioid receptor activation in peripheral nerve fibers. This review article will focus on analgesia and anesthesia produced by the actions of opioids on primary-afferent fibers