A field study evaluating the humoral immune response in Mongolian sheep vaccinated against sheeppox virus

Sheeppox is a transboundary disease of sheep caused by infection with the capripoxvirus sheeppox virus (SPPV). Sheeppox is found in Africa, the Middle East and Asia and is characterised by fever, multifocal cutaneous raised lesions, and death, with substantial negative impact on affected flocks. Vaccination with live attenuated capripoxvirus (CPPV) strains is an effective and widely used means of controlling sheeppox outbreaks, however there are few reports of post-vaccination field surveillance studies of sheeppox. This study used a commercially available ELISA and a fluorescence-based neutralisation assay (FVNT) to examine quantitative and temporal features of the humoral response of sheep vaccinated with a live attenuated CPPV strain in Mongolia. 400 samples were tested using the ELISA, and a subset of 45 also tested with the FVNT. There was substantial agreement between the FVNT and ELISA tests. Antibodies to CPPV were detected between 40 and 262 days post vaccination. There was no significant difference between serological status (positive / negative) and sex or age, however an inverse correlation was found between the length of time since vaccination and serological status. Animals between 90 and 180 days post-vaccination were more likely to be positive than animals greater than 180 days post vaccination. This data provides temporal parameters to consider when planning sheeppox post-vaccination monitoring programmes. In summary, our results show a commercial CPPV ELISA kit is a robust and reliable assay for use in resource-restricted low and low-middle income countries for post CPPV vaccination surveillance on a regional or national level.The attached .xls file contains all raw data used in the associated publication, " A comparative serological field study evaluating the humoral immune response in Mongolian sheep vaccinated against sheeppox virus." The dataset identifies all individual sheep by a unique identification number (ID_num). Each unique ID_num is associated with relevant metadata: Province name, Sum name, herder name coded (Herded_Id), animal species, age of the animal, in years, when sampled (Age), sex of the animal "F" or "M" (Sex), date when the animal was sampled (Date_sample_collected), date when the animal was vaccinated for sheeppox according to the vaccination records (Date_vaccinated_raw data), and for samples in which the exact date of vaccination was not available and a range of potential time was given, the midpoint date within this range (Date_vaccinated_midpoint), animals for which vaccination date was not available receive an "NA" value; time from vaccination to sampled in days (Time_from_vaccinated_midpoint); %S/P values for the ELISA test conducted in the Mongolia lab (Ag_ELISA_SCVL_OD_SP) and %S/P values for the ELISA test conducted in the UK lab (Ag_ELISA_TPI_OD_SP), results from the ELISA test classified as binary variable "Positive" or "Negative" (Ag_ELISA_SCVL_bin and Ag_ELISA_TPI_bin); titres from the fluorescence-based neutralisation assay (FVNT Titre) and results from the FVNT test classified as binary variable ("Positive" or "Negative"), all animals that were not tested by FVNT receive an "NA" value in these columns. Funding provided by: Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research CouncilCrossref Funder Registry ID: http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/501100000268Award Number: BBS/E/I/00007031Funding provided by: Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research CouncilCrossref Funder Registry ID: http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/501100000268Award Number: BB/E/I/00007036Funding provided by: Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research CouncilCrossref Funder Registry ID: http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/501100000268Award Number: BB/E/I/00007037Funding provided by: Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research CouncilCrossref Funder Registry ID: http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/501100000268Award Number: BBS/E/I/00007039Funding provided by: Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research CouncilCrossref Funder Registry ID: http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/501100000268Award Number: BB/J004324/1Funding provided by: Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research CouncilCrossref Funder Registry ID: http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/501100000268Award Number: BBS/E/D/20002173Funding provided by: Horizon 2020Crossref Funder Registry ID: http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/501100007601Award Number: 773701Funding provided by: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations*Crossref Funder Registry ID: Award Number: TCP/MON/3603Funding provided by: IdVet*Crossref Funder Registry ID: Award Number: Funding provided by: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United NationsCrossref Funder Registry ID: Award Number: TCP/MON/3603Funding provided by: IdVetCrossref Funder Registry ID:Blood samples from sheep and associated data were collected as part of the post-vaccination surveillance programme for sheeppox implemented by the Mongolian General Authority for Veterinary Services (GAVS) in 2016

Sequencing and Analysis of Lumpy Skin Disease Virus Whole Genomes Reveals a New Viral Subgroup in West and Central Africa

Lumpy skin disease virus (LSDV) is a member of the capripoxvirus (CPPV) genus of the Poxviridae family. LSDV is a rapidly emerging, high-consequence pathogen of cattle, recently spreading from Africa and the Middle East into Europe and Asia. We have sequenced the whole genome of historical LSDV isolates from the Pirbright Institute virus archive, and field isolates from recent disease outbreaks in Sri Lanka, Mongolia, Nigeria and Ethiopia. These genome sequences were compared to published genomes and classified into different subgroups. Two subgroups contained vaccine or vaccine-like samples ("Neethling-like" clade 1.1 and "Kenya-like" subgroup, clade 1.2.2). One subgroup was associated with outbreaks of LSD in the Middle East/Europe (clade 1.2.1) and a previously unreported subgroup originated from cases of LSD in west and central Africa (clade 1.2.3). Isolates were also identified that contained a mix of genes from both wildtype and vaccine samples (vaccine-like recombinants, grouped in clade 2). Whole genome sequencing and analysis of LSDV strains isolated from different regions of Africa, Europe and Asia have provided new knowledge of the drivers of LSDV emergence, and will inform future disease control strategies.</p

Outbreak of Peste des Petits Ruminants Virus among Criticially Endangered Mongolian Saiga and Other Wild Ungulates, Mongolia, 2016-2017

The 2016–2017 introduction of peste des petits ruminants virus (PPRV) into livestock in Mongolia was followed by mass mortality of the critically endangered Mongolian saiga antelope and other rare wild ungulates. To assess the nature and population effects of this outbreak among wild ungulates, we collected clinical, histopathologic, epidemiologic, and ecological evidence. Molecular characterization confirmed that the causative agent was PPRV lineage IV. The spatiotemporal patterns of cases among wildlife were similar to those among livestock affected by the PPRV outbreak, suggesting spillover of virus from livestock at multiple locations and time points and subsequent spread among wild ungulates. Estimates of saiga abundance suggested a population decline of 80%, raising substantial concerns for the species’ survival. Consideration of the entire ungulate community (wild and domestic) is essential for elucidating the epidemiology of PPRV in Mongolia, addressing the threats to wild ungulate conservation, and achieving global PPRV eradication

Molecular epidemiology of peste des petits ruminants virus emergence in critically endangered Mongolian saiga antelope and other wild ungulates

International audiencePeste des petits ruminants virus (PPRV) causes disease in domestic and wild ungulates, is the target of a Global Eradication Programme, and threatens biodiversity. Understanding the epidemiology and evolution of PPRV in wildlife is important but hampered by the paucity of wildlife-origin PPRV genomes. In this study, full PPRV genomes were generated from three Mongolian saiga antelope, one Siberian ibex, and one goitered gazelle from the 2016–2017 PPRV outbreak. Phylogenetic analysis showed that for Mongolian and Chinese PPRV since 2013, the wildlife and livestock-origin genomes were closely related and interspersed. There was strong phylogenetic support for a monophyletic group of PPRV from Mongolian wildlife and livestock, belonging to a clade of lineage IV PPRV from livestock and wildlife from China since 2013. Discrete diffusion analysis found strong support for PPRV spread into Mongolia from China, and phylogeographic analysis indicated Xinjiang Province as the most likely origin, although genomic surveillance for PPRV is poor and lack of sampling from other regions could bias this result. Times of most recent common ancestor (TMRCA) were June 2015 (95 per cent highest posterior density (HPD): August 2014 to March 2016) for all Mongolian PPRV genomes and May 2016 (95 per cent HPD: October 2015 to October 2016) for Mongolian wildlife-origin PPRV. This suggests that PPRV was circulating undetected in Mongolia for at least 6 months before the first reported outbreak in August 2016 and that wildlife were likely infected before livestock vaccination began in October 2016. Finally, genetic variation and positively selected sites were identified that might be related to PPRV emergence in Mongolian wildlife. This study is the first to sequence multiple PPRV genomes from a wildlife outbreak, across several host species. Additional full PPRV genomes and associated metadata from the livestock–wildlife interface are needed to enhance the power of molecular epidemiology, support PPRV eradication, and safeguard the health of the whole ungulate community

SARS-CoV-2 Infection in Beaver Farm, Mongolia, 2021

We report an outbreak of COVID-19 in a beaver farm in Mongolia in 2021. Genomic characterization revealed a unique combination of mutations in the SARS-CoV-2 of the infected beavers. Based on these findings, increased surveillance of farmed beavers should be encouraged

Absence of adaptive evolution is the main barrier against influenza emergence in horses in Asia despite frequent virus interspecies transmission from wild birds

Virus ecology and evolution play a central role in disease emergence. However, their relative roles will vary depending on the viruses and ecosystems involved. We combined field studies, phylogenetics and experimental infections to document with unprecedented detail the stages that precede initial outbreaks during viral emergence in nature. Using serological surveys we showed that in the absence of large-scale outbreaks, horses in Mongolia are routinely exposed to and infected by avian influenza viruses (AIVs) circulating among wild birds. Some of those AIVs are genetically related to an avian-origin virus that caused an epizootic in horses in 1989. Experimental infections showed that most AIVs replicate in the equine respiratory tract without causing lesions, explaining the absence of outbreaks of disease. Our results show that AIVs infect horses but do not spread, or they infect and spread but do not cause disease. Thus, the failure of AIVs to evolve greater transmissibility and to cause disease in horses is in this case the main barrier preventing disease emergence.Peer Reviewe

Genetic and antigenic characterization of H5 and H7 avian influenza viruses isolated from migratory waterfowl in Mongolia from 2017 to 2019

The circulation of highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses (HPAIVs) of various subtypes (e.g., H5N1, H5N6, H5N8, and H7N9) in poultry remains a global concern for animal and public health. Migratory waterfowls play important roles in the transmission of these viruses across countries. To monitor virus spread by wild birds, active surveillance for avian influenza in migratory waterfowl was conducted in Mongolia from 2015 to 2019. In total, 5000 fecal samples were collected from lakesides in central Mongolia, and 167 influenza A viruses were isolated. Two H5N3, four H7N3, and two H7N7 viruses were characterized in this study. The amino acid sequence at hemagglutinin (HA) cleavage site of those isolates suggested low pathogenicity in chickens. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that all H5 and H7 viruses were closely related to recent H5 and H7 low pathogenic avian influenza viruses (LPAIVs) isolated from wild birds in Asia and Europe. Antigenicity of H7Nx was similar to those of typical non-pathogenic avian influenza viruses (AIVs). While HPAIVs or A/Anhui/1/2013 (H7N9)-related LPAIVs were not detected in migratory waterfowl in Mongolia, sporadic introductions of AIVs including H5 and H7 viruses into Mongolia through the wild bird migration were identified. Thus, continued monitoring of H5 and H7 AIVs in both domestic and wild birds is needed for the early detection of HPAIVs spread into the country

Ecological characterization of 175 low-pathogenicity avian influenza viruses isolated from wild birds in Mongolia, 2009-2013 and 2016-2018.

BACKGROUND: Since 2005, highly pathogenic avian influenza A H5N1 viruses have spread from Asia worldwide, infecting poultry, humans and wild birds. Subsequently, global interest in avian influenza (AI) surveillance increased. OBJECTIVES: Mongolia presents an opportunity to study viruses in wild birds because the country has very low densities of domestic poultry and supports large concentrations of migratory water birds. METHODS: We conducted AI surveillance in Mongolia over two time periods, 2009-2013 and 2016-2018, utilizing environmental fecal sampling. Fresh fecal samples were collected from water bird congregation sites. Hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA) subtypes of positive samples were identified through viral isolation or molecular assays, with pathogenicity determined by HA subtype or sequencing the HA cleavage site. RESULTS: A total of 10,222 samples were collected. Of these, 7,025 fecal samples were collected from 2009 to 2013, and 3,197 fecal samples were collected from 2016 to 2018. Testing revealed 175 (1.7%) positive samples for low-pathogenicity influenza A, including 118 samples from 2009 to 2013 (1.7%) and 57 samples from 2016 to 2018 (1.8%). HA and NA subtyping of all positives identified 11 subtypes of HA and nine subtypes of NA in 29 different combinations. Within periods, viruses were detected more frequently during the fall season than in the early summer. CONCLUSION: Mongolias critical wild bird habitat is positioned as a crossroad of multiple migratory flyways. Our work demonstrates the feasibility of using an affordable environmental fecal sampling approach for AI surveillance and contributes to understanding the prevalence and ecology of low-pathogenicity avian influenza viruses in this important location, where birds from multiple flyways mix