Costumbre y Muerte. Algunas actitudes con relación a la muerte en el siglo XIX

La siguiente investigación pretende aproximarse brevemente a cierto tipo de costumbres mortuorias desarrolladas en el siglo XIX en la ciudad de Lima y como estas son parte de las expresiones mentales plasmadas en el panteón general de Lima, hoy museo cementerio Presbítero Matías Maestro. Este análisis preliminar es posible mediante la observación de diversos relatos o descripciones de viajeros extranjeros que estuvieron en el Perú en aquel tiempo. Gracias a estos relatos nos podemos acercar al amplio universo que constituyen las costumbres referidas a la muerte en el periodo que va desde fines del régimen virreinal y la instauración de la república en el siglo XIX

Percepción y reflexión de la historiografía peruana de las últimas décadas del siglo XX. Una mirada breve a las condiciones del que hacer histórico en el Perú

Las siguientes líneas tienen como objetivo esbozar unas ideas preliminares, referidas en forma de ensayo a la comprensión de la historiografía peruana de las últimas décadas del siglo XX, mediante la aproximación que los balances historiográficos han brindado sobre este periodo. Esta observación preliminar busca identificar algunos elementos, indicadores y apreciaciones a la labor del historiador que cumplen la función de condiciones hacen posible su profesión, ello a través del análisis a balances historiográficos, entrevistas y opiniones que hacen posible la visualizar dichas condiciones

Recuerdo y muerte en las carreteras del Perú. Observación histórica a los cenotafios en la Panamericana Norte entre Lima y Trujillo 2021

Las siguientes páginas sintetizan los resultados de investigación del proyecto: Cenotafios en los caminos costeros del Perú. Observación y análisis histórico a los recordatorios mortuorios a los márgenes de la carretera Panamericana Norte (Lima – Trujillo) 2021. Proyecto aprobado por la Universidad Ricardo Palma, el 24 de agosto de 2021 en el acuerdo de Consejo Universitario N° 1668 - 2021- virtual.  Este trabajo es parte de una observación de largo alcance, con la intención de comprender desde el ámbito de las ciencias sociales y en particular desde el ángulo de la historia, una de las manifestaciones mortuorias albergadas en nuestra cotidianidad y de constante materialización y reproducción en diversas regiones de nuestro país, desde el siglo XX hasta nuestros días. Nos referimos a los cenotafios colocados a los márgenes de las carreteras, nuestro análisis toma como ejemplo un tramo de la carretera Panamericana Norte, entre las ciudades de Lima y Trujillo, con la intención de iniciar la observación de la sensibilidad social e imaginario que se constituye ante la muerte súbita en las autopistas plasmados por la colectividad afectada, revelando una de las manifestaciones sociales ante la muerte

MUERTE, MEMORIA Y CENOTAFIOS EN LA AUTOPISTA PANAMERICANA NORTE ENTRE LIMA Y TRUJILLO

The following article provides an approach to the understanding of the cenotaphserected on the margins of the great Panamericana Norte highway, whose analysiswas developed in the project “Cenotaphs on the coastal roads of Peru. Observationand historical analysis of the mortuary reminders on the margins of the NorthPan-American highway (Lima - Trujillo) 2021”, approved by the Ricardo PalmaUniversity, on August 24, 2021 in the agreement of the University Council No. 1668- 2021- virtual . This work is a brief synthesis, which proposes to understand, fromthe spectrum of history, one of the expressions before death or tributes to theloss, developed in our regional daily life that runs along the North Pan-Americanhighway between the cities of Lima and Trujillo.El siguiente articulo brinda un acercamiento a la comprensión de los cenotafioserigidos a los márgenes de la gran autopista Panamericana Norte, cuyo análisisfue desarrollado en el proyecto “Cenotafios en los caminos costeros del Perú.Observación y análisis histórico a los recordatorios mortuorios a los márgenes de lacarretera Panamericana Norte (Lima – Trujillo) 2021”, aprobado por la UniversidadRicardo Palma, el 24 de agosto de 2021 en el acuerdo de Consejo Universitario N°1668 - 2021- virtual. Este trabajo es una breve síntesis, que propone comprender,desde el espectro de la historia, una de las expresiones ante la muerte u homenajesa la perdida, desarrolladas en nuestra cotidianidad regional que recorre la carreteraPanamericana Norte entre las ciudades de Lima y Trujillo

El cine y la construcción de los acontecimientos Históricos.: (El Caso Del Motín Del Penal El Sexto De 1984)

La siguiente investigación guarda múltiples objetivos integrados; el apreciar el valor del cine como fuente de investigación histórica, como agente de la historia y como elemento constructor de un meta relato histórico. Partiendo de ello utilizare al cine como entidad compleja como una expresión artística que expone, influye y estimula ciertas actitudes mentales correspondientes  a ciertos contextos sociales, es por ello que el cine dentro de sus alcances contribuye en la construcción o refuerzo de una versión histórica con respecto a ciertos acontecimientos históricos

El cine y la construcción de los acontecimientos históricos: (El caso del motín del penal El Sexto de 1984)

La siguiente investigación guarda múltiples objetivos integrados; el apreciar el valor del cine como fuente de investigación histórica, como agente de la historia y como elemento constructor de un meta relato histórico. Partiendo de ello utilizaré al cine como entidad compleja como una expresión artística que expone, influye y estimula ciertas actitudes mentales correspondientes a ciertos contextos sociales, es por ello que el cine dentro de sus alcances contribuye en la construcción o refuerzo de una versión histórica con respecto a ciertos acontecimientos históricos. Esta situación preliminar sirve de pretexto para iniciar el camino de la investigación que analizará el motín del penal “El Sexto” desarrollado en marzo de 1984 y el impacto que causó en la sociedad limeña y como años más tarde dicho acontecimiento es reforzado y meta construido gracias al cine a través de un filme el cual integra elementos dinámicos que exponen  una historia, la cual nuestra aspectos sociales de nuestra historia

Lo audiovisual, su influencia y manifestación en el imaginario peruano durante la pandemia

Our following essay contributes to pointing out possible routes of investigati on, in the field of the history of the imaginary of our Peruvian society, in the pandemic context, of the covid -19, which we are currently experiencing. Scenario, in which a series of; manifestations, behaviors, attitudes, acti ons and coincidences that Peruvian society develops in this part of its evolution. These phenomena demand the need to be observed by history, to understand its dynamics. In addition, they invoke the speed in preparing us, to be able to validate and analyze the new types of sources; platforms, social networks, and audiovisual content, which contain a series of social complexities, which are in constant reworking and feedback. Situati on that when visualizing and integrating in the investigation can broaden our understanding of the present of our imagined Peruvian society affected by the pandemic.Nuestro siguiente ensayo contribuye señalar posibles rutas de investigación, en el terreno de la historia de lo imaginario de nuestra sociedad peruana, en el contexto pandémico, de la Covid -19, el cual actualmente vivimos. Escenario, en el cual se perciben una serie de; manifestaciones, comportamientos, actitudes, acciones y coincidencias que desarrolla la sociedad peruana en esta parte de su devenir. Estos fenómenos demandan la necesidad de ser observados por la historia, en pro de lograr comprender su dinámica. Además, invocan la celeridad en prepararnos, para poder validar y analizar los nuevos tipos de fuentes; plataformas, redes sociales y contenido audiovisual, que en su interior encierran, una serie de complejidades sociales, que están en constante reelaboración y retroalimentación. Situación que al visualizar e integrar en la investi gación puede ampliar nuestra comprensión sobre el presente de nuestra imaginada sociedad peruana afectada por la pandemia

Higher COVID-19 pneumonia risk associated with anti-IFN-α than with anti-IFN-ω auto-Abs in children

We found that 19 (10.4%) of 183 unvaccinated children hospitalized for COVID-19 pneumonia had autoantibodies (auto-Abs) neutralizing type I IFNs (IFN-alpha 2 in 10 patients: IFN-alpha 2 only in three, IFN-alpha 2 plus IFN-omega in five, and IFN-alpha 2, IFN-omega plus IFN-beta in two; IFN-omega only in nine patients). Seven children (3.8%) had Abs neutralizing at least 10 ng/ml of one IFN, whereas the other 12 (6.6%) had Abs neutralizing only 100 pg/ml. The auto-Abs neutralized both unglycosylated and glycosylated IFNs. We also detected auto-Abs neutralizing 100 pg/ml IFN-alpha 2 in 4 of 2,267 uninfected children (0.2%) and auto-Abs neutralizing IFN-omega in 45 children (2%). The odds ratios (ORs) for life-threatening COVID-19 pneumonia were, therefore, higher for auto-Abs neutralizing IFN-alpha 2 only (OR [95% CI] = 67.6 [5.7-9,196.6]) than for auto-Abs neutralizing IFN-. only (OR [95% CI] = 2.6 [1.2-5.3]). ORs were also higher for auto-Abs neutralizing high concentrations (OR [95% CI] = 12.9 [4.6-35.9]) than for those neutralizing low concentrations (OR [95% CI] = 5.5 [3.1-9.6]) of IFN-omega and/or IFN-alpha 2

Global burden and strength of evidence for 88 risk factors in 204 countries and 811 subnational locations, 1990–2021: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2021

Background: Understanding the health consequences associated with exposure to risk factors is necessary to inform public health policy and practice. To systematically quantify the contributions of risk factor exposures to specific health outcomes, the Global Burden of Diseases, Injuries, and Risk Factors Study (GBD) 2021 aims to provide comprehensive estimates of exposure levels, relative health risks, and attributable burden of disease for 88 risk factors in 204 countries and territories and 811 subnational locations, from 1990 to 2021. Methods: The GBD 2021 risk factor analysis used data from 54 561 total distinct sources to produce epidemiological estimates for 88 risk factors and their associated health outcomes for a total of 631 risk–outcome pairs. Pairs were included on the basis of data-driven determination of a risk–outcome association. Age-sex-location-year-specific estimates were generated at global, regional, and national levels. Our approach followed the comparative risk assessment framework predicated on a causal web of hierarchically organised, potentially combinative, modifiable risks. Relative risks (RRs) of a given outcome occurring as a function of risk factor exposure were estimated separately for each risk–outcome pair, and summary exposure values (SEVs), representing risk-weighted exposure prevalence, and theoretical minimum risk exposure levels (TMRELs) were estimated for each risk factor. These estimates were used to calculate the population attributable fraction (PAF; ie, the proportional change in health risk that would occur if exposure to a risk factor were reduced to the TMREL). The product of PAFs and disease burden associated with a given outcome, measured in disability-adjusted life-years (DALYs), yielded measures of attributable burden (ie, the proportion of total disease burden attributable to a particular risk factor or combination of risk factors). Adjustments for mediation were applied to account for relationships involving risk factors that act indirectly on outcomes via intermediate risks. Attributable burden estimates were stratified by Socio-demographic Index (SDI) quintile and presented as counts, age-standardised rates, and rankings. To complement estimates of RR and attributable burden, newly developed burden of proof risk function (BPRF) methods were applied to yield supplementary, conservative interpretations of risk–outcome associations based on the consistency of underlying evidence, accounting for unexplained heterogeneity between input data from different studies. Estimates reported represent the mean value across 500 draws from the estimate's distribution, with 95% uncertainty intervals (UIs) calculated as the 2·5th and 97·5th percentile values across the draws. Findings: Among the specific risk factors analysed for this study, particulate matter air pollution was the leading contributor to the global disease burden in 2021, contributing 8·0% (95% UI 6·7–9·4) of total DALYs, followed by high systolic blood pressure (SBP; 7·8% [6·4–9·2]), smoking (5·7% [4·7–6·8]), low birthweight and short gestation (5·6% [4·8–6·3]), and high fasting plasma glucose (FPG; 5·4% [4·8–6·0]). For younger demographics (ie, those aged 0–4 years and 5–14 years), risks such as low birthweight and short gestation and unsafe water, sanitation, and handwashing (WaSH) were among the leading risk factors, while for older age groups, metabolic risks such as high SBP, high body-mass index (BMI), high FPG, and high LDL cholesterol had a greater impact. From 2000 to 2021, there was an observable shift in global health challenges, marked by a decline in the number of all-age DALYs broadly attributable to behavioural risks (decrease of 20·7% [13·9–27·7]) and environmental and occupational risks (decrease of 22·0% [15·5–28·8]), coupled with a 49·4% (42·3–56·9) increase in DALYs attributable to metabolic risks, all reflecting ageing populations and changing lifestyles on a global scale. Age-standardised global DALY rates attributable to high BMI and high FPG rose considerably (15·7% [9·9–21·7] for high BMI and 7·9% [3·3–12·9] for high FPG) over this period, with exposure to these risks increasing annually at rates of 1·8% (1·6–1·9) for high BMI and 1·3% (1·1–1·5) for high FPG. By contrast, the global risk-attributable burden and exposure to many other risk factors declined, notably for risks such as child growth failure and unsafe water source, with age-standardised attributable DALYs decreasing by 71·5% (64·4–78·8) for child growth failure and 66·3% (60·2–72·0) for unsafe water source. We separated risk factors into three groups according to trajectory over time: those with a decreasing attributable burden, due largely to declining risk exposure (eg, diet high in trans-fat and household air pollution) but also to proportionally smaller child and youth populations (eg, child and maternal malnutrition); those for which the burden increased moderately in spite of declining risk exposure, due largely to population ageing (eg, smoking); and those for which the burden increased considerably due to both increasing risk exposure and population ageing (eg, ambient particulate matter air pollution, high BMI, high FPG, and high SBP). Interpretation: Substantial progress has been made in reducing the global disease burden attributable to a range of risk factors, particularly those related to maternal and child health, WaSH, and household air pollution. Maintaining efforts to minimise the impact of these risk factors, especially in low SDI locations, is necessary to sustain progress. Successes in moderating the smoking-related burden by reducing risk exposure highlight the need to advance policies that reduce exposure to other leading risk factors such as ambient particulate matter air pollution and high SBP. Troubling increases in high FPG, high BMI, and other risk factors related to obesity and metabolic syndrome indicate an urgent need to identify and implement interventions

Global age-sex-specific mortality, life expectancy, and population estimates in 204 countries and territories and 811 subnational locations, 1950–2021, and the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic: a comprehensive demographic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2021

Background: Estimates of demographic metrics are crucial to assess levels and trends of population health outcomes. The profound impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on populations worldwide has underscored the need for timely estimates to understand this unprecedented event within the context of long-term population health trends. The Global Burden of Diseases, Injuries, and Risk Factors Study (GBD) 2021 provides new demographic estimates for 204 countries and territories and 811 additional subnational locations from 1950 to 2021, with a particular emphasis on changes in mortality and life expectancy that occurred during the 2020–21 COVID-19 pandemic period. Methods: 22 223 data sources from vital registration, sample registration, surveys, censuses, and other sources were used to estimate mortality, with a subset of these sources used exclusively to estimate excess mortality due to the COVID-19 pandemic. 2026 data sources were used for population estimation. Additional sources were used to estimate migration; the effects of the HIV epidemic; and demographic discontinuities due to conflicts, famines, natural disasters, and pandemics, which are used as inputs for estimating mortality and population. Spatiotemporal Gaussian process regression (ST-GPR) was used to generate under-5 mortality rates, which synthesised 30 763 location-years of vital registration and sample registration data, 1365 surveys and censuses, and 80 other sources. ST-GPR was also used to estimate adult mortality (between ages 15 and 59 years) based on information from 31 642 location-years of vital registration and sample registration data, 355 surveys and censuses, and 24 other sources. Estimates of child and adult mortality rates were then used to generate life tables with a relational model life table system. For countries with large HIV epidemics, life tables were adjusted using independent estimates of HIV-specific mortality generated via an epidemiological analysis of HIV prevalence surveys, antenatal clinic serosurveillance, and other data sources. Excess mortality due to the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020 and 2021 was determined by subtracting observed all-cause mortality (adjusted for late registration and mortality anomalies) from the mortality expected in the absence of the pandemic. Expected mortality was calculated based on historical trends using an ensemble of models. In location-years where all-cause mortality data were unavailable, we estimated excess mortality rates using a regression model with covariates pertaining to the pandemic. Population size was computed using a Bayesian hierarchical cohort component model. Life expectancy was calculated using age-specific mortality rates and standard demographic methods. Uncertainty intervals (UIs) were calculated for every metric using the 25th and 975th ordered values from a 1000-draw posterior distribution. Findings: Global all-cause mortality followed two distinct patterns over the study period: age-standardised mortality rates declined between 1950 and 2019 (a 62·8% [95% UI 60·5–65·1] decline), and increased during the COVID-19 pandemic period (2020–21; 5·1% [0·9–9·6] increase). In contrast with the overall reverse in mortality trends during the pandemic period, child mortality continued to decline, with 4·66 million (3·98–5·50) global deaths in children younger than 5 years in 2021 compared with 5·21 million (4·50–6·01) in 2019. An estimated 131 million (126–137) people died globally from all causes in 2020 and 2021 combined, of which 15·9 million (14·7–17·2) were due to the COVID-19 pandemic (measured by excess mortality, which includes deaths directly due to SARS-CoV-2 infection and those indirectly due to other social, economic, or behavioural changes associated with the pandemic). Excess mortality rates exceeded 150 deaths per 100 000 population during at least one year of the pandemic in 80 countries and territories, whereas 20 nations had a negative excess mortality rate in 2020 or 2021, indicating that all-cause mortality in these countries was lower during the pandemic than expected based on historical trends. Between 1950 and 2021, global life expectancy at birth increased by 22·7 years (20·8–24·8), from 49·0 years (46·7–51·3) to 71·7 years (70·9–72·5). Global life expectancy at birth declined by 1·6 years (1·0–2·2) between 2019 and 2021, reversing historical trends. An increase in life expectancy was only observed in 32 (15·7%) of 204 countries and territories between 2019 and 2021. The global population reached 7·89 billion (7·67–8·13) people in 2021, by which time 56 of 204 countries and territories had peaked and subsequently populations have declined. The largest proportion of population growth between 2020 and 2021 was in sub-Saharan Africa (39·5% [28·4–52·7]) and south Asia (26·3% [9·0–44·7]). From 2000 to 2021, the ratio of the population aged 65 years and older to the population aged younger than 15 years increased in 188 (92·2%) of 204 nations. Interpretation: Global adult mortality rates markedly increased during the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020 and 2021, reversing past decreasing trends, while child mortality rates continued to decline, albeit more slowly than in earlier years. Although COVID-19 had a substantial impact on many demographic indicators during the first 2 years of the pandemic, overall global health progress over the 72 years evaluated has been profound, with considerable improvements in mortality and life expectancy. Additionally, we observed a deceleration of global population growth since 2017, despite steady or increasing growth in lower-income countries, combined with a continued global shift of population age structures towards older ages. These demographic changes will likely present future challenges to health systems, economies, and societies. The comprehensive demographic estimates reported here will enable researchers, policy makers, health practitioners, and other key stakeholders to better understand and address the profound changes that have occurred in the global health landscape following the first 2 years of the COVID-19 pandemic, and longer-term trends beyond the pandemic