Sea-floor tectonics and submarine hydrothermal systems

The discovery of metal-depositing hot springs on the sea floor, and especially their link to chemosynthetic life, was among the most compelling and significant scientific advances of the twentieth century. More than 300 sites of hydrothermal activity and sea-floor mineralization are known on the ocean floor. About 100 of these are sites of high-temperature venting and polymetallic sulfide deposits. They occur at mid-ocean ridges (65%), in back-arc basins (22%), and on submarine volcanic arcs (12%). Although high-temperature, 350°C, black smoker vents are the most recognizable features of sea-floor hydrothermal activity, a wide range of different styles of mineralization has been found. Different volcanic substrates, including mid-ocean ridge basalt, ultramafic intrusive rocks, and more evolved volcanic suites in both oceanic and continental crust, as well as temperature-dependent solubility controls, account for the main geochemical associations found in the deposits. Although end-member hydrothermal fluids mainly originate in the deep volcanic basement, the presence of sediments and other substrates can have a large effect on the compositions of the vent fluids. In arc and backarc settings, vent fluid compositions are broadly similar to those at mid-ocean ridges, but the arc magmas also supply a number of components to the hydrothermal fluids. The majority of known black smoker vents occur on fast-spreading mid-ocean ridges, but the largest massive sulfide deposits are located at intermediate- and slow-spreading centers, at ridge-axis volcanoes, in deep backarc basins, and in sedimented rifts adjacent to continental margins. The range of deposit sizes in these settings is similar to that of ancient volcanic-associated massive sulfide (VMS) deposits. Detailed mapping, and in some cases drilling, indicates that a number of deposits contain 1 to 5 million tons (Mt) of massive sulfide (e.g., TAG hydrothermal field on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, deposits of the Galapagos Rift, and at 13°N on the East Pacific Rise). Two sediment-hosted deposits, at Middle Valley on the Juan de Fuca Ridge and in the Atlantis II Deep of the Red Sea, are much larger (up to 15 and 90 Mt, respectively). In the western Pacific, high-temperature hydrothermal systems occur mainly at intraoceanic back-arc spreading centers (e.g., Lau basin, North Fiji basin, Mariana trough) and in arc-related rifts at continental margins (e.g., Okinawa trough). In contrast to the mid-ocean ridges, convergent margin settings are characterized by a range of different crustal thicknesses and compositions, variable heat flow regimes, and diverse magma types. These variations result in major differences in the compositions and isotopic systematics of the hydrothermal fluids and the mineralogy and bulk compositions of the associated mineral deposits. Intraoceanic back-arc basin spreading centers host black smoker vents that, for the most part, are very similar to those on the mid-ocean ridges. However, isotopic data from both the volcanic rocks and the sulfide deposits highlight the importance of subduction recycling in the origin of the magmas and hydrothermal fluids. Back-arc rifts in continental margin settings are typically sediment-filled basins, which derive their sediment load from the adjacent continental shelf. This has an insulating effect that enhances the high heat flow associated with rifting of the continental crust and also helps to preserve the contained sulfide deposits. Large hydrothermal systems have developed where initial rifting of continental crust or locally thickened arc crust has formed large calderalike sea-floor depressions, similar to those that contained major VMS-forming systems in the geologic record. Hydrothermal vents also occur in the summit calderas of submarine volcanoes at the volcanic fronts of arcs. However, this contrasts with the interpreted settings of most ancient VMS deposits, which are considered to have formed mainly during arc rifting. Hydrothermal vents associated with arc volcanoes show clear evidence of the direct input of magmatic volatiles, similar to magmatic-hydrothermal systems in subaerial volcanic arcs. Several compelling examples of submarine epithermal-style mineralization, including gold-base metal veins, have been found on submarine arc volcanoes,and this type of mineralization may be more common than is presently recognized. Mapping and sampling of the sea floor has dramatically improved geodynamic models of different submarine volcanic and tectonic settings and has helped to establish a framework for the characterization of many similar ancient terranes. Deposits forming at convergent margins are considered to be the closest analogs of ancient VMS. However, black smokers on the mid-ocean ridges continue to provide critically important information about metal transport and deposition in sea-floor hydrothermal systems of all types. Ongoing sea-floor exploration in other settings is providing clues to the diversity of mineral deposit types that occur in different environments and the conditions that are favorable for their formation

Analysis of Tomato spotted wilt virus effector-triggered immunity

ResistanceinCapsicumagainsttheTomatospottedwiltvirus(TSWV),typespeciesof the Tospovirusgenuswithinthe Bunyaviridaefamily,employsthe singledominant resistancegeneTsw.Thisresistance hasmeanwhilebeenbrokenbyresistance breaking (RB) TSWV isolates and is causing increasing problems in many different (Capsicumcultivating)countries.Theresearchdescribedhereaimedtoidentify andcharacterise theviralproteintriggeringTswresistanceandprovidefurther insightintothemechanismofTsw-mediatedresistance.Knowledgegainedfrom thegeneticandphenotypiccharacterisationofTsw-resistancebreakingisolateswas usedtodevelopdiagnosticmarkersfordetectionofTsw-breakingpathotypesin fieldcultivations. TheNSsRNAsilencingsuppressor(RSS)proteinwasidentifiedastheavirulence determinant ofTsw-mediatedresistance(Chapter2).WhiletheNSsproteinfrom theTSWVresistanceinducer(RI)isolatewasactiveasRNAsilencingsuppressorand avirulencedeterminant,theNSsproteinfromtwodifferentTSWVRBisolateslacked bothfunctionsasevidencedfromtransientassays.Surprisingly,thecorresponding resistancebreakingvirusisolatesstillexhibitedRNAisuppressoractivity. Noneof the other viral proteins were able to aid in the transient recovery of RSS activity. Electrophoreticmobilityshift assays(EMSAs)usingplantextractscontaining transientlyexpressedNSsproteinsshowedashift ofsiRNAswithNSsRI,indicative forbinding,butnotwithNSsRB.InagreementwiththelocalleafRSSassaysusinga virusinfection,plantextractsofvirusinfectedleaveswereabletoshiftthesiRNAs, showing recovery of the RSS activityduring virus infection. The linkage of RNAi suppression and avirulence in NSs was further investigated bymutationalanalysis(Chapter3).AlargesetofNSsmutantswasgeneratedusing alaninesubstitutions ofauthenticTSWVNSsaminoacidsandwastestedfortheir abilitytotriggerTsw-mediatedHRandabilitytosuppressRNAi.Theseassaysshowed thatthe N-terminaldomainofNSscarried mostimportantresiduesinvolvedwith bothactivities. However,singlemutationscouldbeintroducedthatdisruptedone function,whilemaintainingtheotheroneandviceversaindicatingthatRSSactivity andavirulencewerenotfunctionally linked.SwappingofdomainsbetweenNSsRI andNSsRB notonlyconfirmedtheimportanceoftheN-terminaldomainbutalso thespecificitywithintheTSWVspecies,sincedomainswapsbetweenNSsRIandNSs fromGRSV,arelatedbutdistinct Tospovirus,couldnottransfertheAvrphenotype toGRSV.MutationofaGW/WG-motifintheNterminalregionofNSsRI leadtoa lossofbothfunctionsandindicatedthatthismotif, knowntobeinvolvedinAGO1 interactionof other viral RSS, was of biological relevance for TSWV NSs. Theputativeinteraction ofAGO1andNSswasinvestigatedbyusingdifferent approaches to co-immunoprecipitate (Co-IP) on transiently co-expressed tagged- AGO1and(His-)NSs(Chapter4).Initialindicationsforsuchinteraction were obtained,howeverfurthersupportforthisputativeinteraction willhavetocome fromcomplementaryexperiments,e.g. Yeast-2-hybrid (Y2H), FRET-FLIM or BiFC. Severaladditional TSWVisolateswereanalysedthatbesidestheknownresistance inducing-and resistance breaking-phenotype showed a temperature-dependent phenotype(Chapter5).IsolatesclassifiedtothistypeexhibitedanRIphenotypeat standardgreenhouseconditions (~22°C)whileatelevatedtemperatures(≥28°C), butstillbelowtemperaturesthatinactivatedtheR-geneproduct(≥31°C),wereable tobreaktheresistance.Viruschallengingassaysatvariousconditionsindicatedthat inductionofTswresistanceatalower temperaturebythesesocalledtemperature dependentresistancebreakingisolates(TempRB)involveddenovosynthesisofthe avirulenceprotein,i.e.NSs,andthat proteinfoldingmight play arole. NSsproteins clonedandexpressedfromthisadditional newsetofTSWVresistanceinducing, resistancebreakingandtemperature dependentresistancebreakingisolates revealedvariableresultsregardless oftheircorrespondingvirusphenotype,when tested for their abilitytoinduceTsw-mediated HR andsuppress RNAi at normal greenhouseconditions(22°C).However,similarassaystoanalysetheiractivity attheelevatedtemperature(28°C)failedwhenusingAgrobacteriummediated transientassays.Sofar,themechanismoftemperature dependencyhasnotbeen clarified yetandneedsfurtherinvestigation.Usingtheinformationobtained,a diagnostictoolwasdevelopedtoscreenforthepotential presenceofresistance breakingisolatesofTSWVusingreversetranscription-polymerasechainreaction amplification(RT-PCR).Aprimersetwasdesignedtargetinganimportantcodon ataaposition79andshowedtobeabletodistinguishRB-isolatesfromRI-isolates. However,afewRB-isolatesstillescapedfromdetection indicatingthelimitedand conditionaluse of this tool. In summary, NSs has been identified as Avr-determinant of Tsw-mediated resistance,butthisfunctionisnottightlylinkedtoitsRNAisuppressor-activity. Preliminarydataindicateaputativeinteraction betweenAGO1andNSs.Besides the typicalRIandRBphenotypes,athirdphenotypicclassofTSWVisolates has beenidentified thatexhibitsatemperaturedependencyontriggeringTsw- mediatedresistance andpossiblyinvolvesanalteredproteinfoldingofNSs.A diagnostic toolhasbeendevelopedtodetectresistancebreakingisolatesinthe fieldbasedonRT-PCR,butthistoolstillallowsforescapesofRBisolates.Theresults onNSsarediscussedinlightofitsroleaseffectorwithinthe‘Zig-zag-model’of planthostdefenceresponses.Finally,TSWVNSsisbriefly discussedandcompared totheanimal-infecting(NSs)paralogsoftheBunyaviridaefamily,alsoinlightof functional andstructuralhomologiesbetweenthesensorsofinnateimmunityin plant(R-genes)and animal (NLRs/TLRs) cell systems. </p

Modality, Potentiality and Contradiction in Quantum Mechanics

In [11], Newton da Costa together with the author of this paper argued in favor of the possibility to consider quantum superpositions in terms of a paraconsistent approach. We claimed that, even though most interpretations of quantum mechanics (QM) attempt to escape contradictions, there are many hints that indicate it could be worth while to engage in a research of this kind. Recently, Arenhart and Krause [1, 2, 3] have raised several arguments against this approach and claimed that, taking into account the square of opposition, quantum superpositions are better understood in terms of contrariety propositions rather than contradictory propositions. In [17] we defended the Paraconsistent Approach to Quantum Superpositions (PAQS) and provided arguments in favor of its development. In the present paper we attempt to analyze the meanings of modality, potentiality and contradiction in QM, and provide further arguments of why the PAQS is better suited, than the Contrariety Approach to Quantum Superpositions (CAQS) proposed by Arenhart and Krause, to face the interpretational questions that quantum technology is forcing us to consider.Comment: Published in: New Directions in Paraconsistent Logic, J-Y B\'eziau M. Chakraborty & S. Dutta (Eds.), Springer, in press. arXiv admin note: text overlap with arXiv:1404.518

10 wegen om te groeien : oplossingen voor schaalvergroting binnen de melkveehouderij in de Achterhoek en Liemers

In deze brochure laten melkveehouders en experts hun licht schijnen over de mogelijke uitbreiding binnen de melkveehouderij in het reconstructiegebied Achterhoek en Liemers. Zij geven aanbevelingen en tips en wijzen de weg naar een toekomst voor de melkveehouderij. Van betere rentabiliteit, het zoeken van samenwerking, mogelijkheden van kavelruil, natuurbeheer en landschapsonderhoud tot "kijk eens per jaar waar je staat en wat je wilt". Een project in samenwerking met LNV, LTO, WUR en het Plattelandshui

Little-studied arc-backarc system in the spotlight

A research cruise has documented changes in rift tectonics, volcanism, and hydrothermalism along the least studied and most enigmatic sector of a crustal complex in the southwest Pacific Ocean. Results from the longitudinal transect are expected to provide insight into processes involving the Kermadec arc-Havre backarc (KAHB) system, a continuum from oceanic spreading to continental rifting at a convergent plate boundary KAHB forms the central sector of an active, 2000-km arc-backarc complex between Tonga and New Zealand (Figure 1). The expedition also engaged in the first comprehensive survey of submarine vents in the Taupo Volcanic Zone (TVZ) at the south end of the KAHB system. Identified in the off-shore segment of TVZ were three major hydrothermal vent areas associated with late Quaternary fault structures. Data from the expedition and from other recent research in the same area addressed questions concerning the type of hydrothermal venting, magmatic heterogeneity along and across KAHB, the style of backarc rifting, and tectonic and magmatic consequences of anomalous terranes colliding with the subduction margin

A Topological Study of Contextuality and Modality in Quantum Mechanics

Kochen-Specker theorem rules out the non-contextual assignment of values to physical magnitudes. Here we enrich the usual orthomodular structure of quantum mechanical propositions with modal operators. This enlargement allows to refer consistently to actual and possible properties of the system. By means of a topological argument, more precisely in terms of the existence of sections of sheaves, we give an extended version of Kochen-Specker theorem over this new structure. This allows us to prove that contextuality remains a central feature even in the enriched propositional system.Comment: 10 pages, no figures, submitted to I. J. Th. Phy

3-D focused inversion of near-seafloor magnetic data with application to the Brothers volcano hydrothermal system, Southern Pacific Ocean, New Zealand

Author Posting. © American Geophysical Union, 2012. This article is posted here by permission of American Geophysical Union for personal use, not for redistribution. The definitive version was published in Journal of Geophysical Research 117 (2012): B10102, doi:10.1029/2012JB009349.We describe and apply a new inversion method for 3-D modeling of magnetic anomalies designed for general application but which is particularly useful for the interpretation of near-seafloor magnetic anomalies. The crust subsurface is modeled by a set of prismatic cells, each with uniform magnetization, that together reproduce the observed magnetic field. This problem is linear with respect to the magnetization, and the number of cells is normally greater than the amount of available data. Thus, the solution is obtained by solving an under-determined linear problem. A focused solution, exhibiting sharp boundaries between different magnetization domains, is obtained by allowing the amplitudes of magnetization to vary between a pre-determined range and by minimizing the region of the 3-D space where the source shows large variations, i.e., large gradients. A regularization functional based on a depth-weighting function is also introduced in order to counter-act the natural decay of the magnetic field intensity with depth. The inversion method has been used to explore the characteristics of the submarine hydrothermal system of Brothers volcano in the Kermadec arc, by inverting near-bottom magnetic data acquired by Autonomous Underwater Vehicles (AUVs). Different surface expressions of the hydrothermal vent fields show specific vertical structures in their underlying demagnetization regions that we interpret to represent hydrothermal upflow zones. For example, at focused vent sites the demagnetized conduits are vertical, pipe-like structures extending to depths of ~1000 m below the seafloor, whereas at diffuse vent sites the demagnetization regions are characterized by thin and inclined conduits.This contribution was made possible through funding by the New Zealand Foundation for Research, Science and Technology (FRST contract C05X0406) and by the Royal Society of New Zealand by the Marsden Fund (grant GNS1003).2013-04-1

Carnot cycle for an oscillator

Carnot established in 1824 that the efficiency of cyclic engines operating between a hot bath at absolute temperature $T_{hot}$ and a bath at a lower temperature $T_{cold}$ cannot exceed $1-T_{cold}/T_{hot}$. We show that linear oscillators alternately in contact with hot and cold baths obey this principle in the quantum as well as in the classical regime. The expression of the work performed is derived from a simple prescription. Reversible and non-reversible cycles are illustrated. The paper begins with historical considerations and is essentially self-contained.Comment: 19 pages, 3 figures, sumitted to European Journal of Physics Changed content: Fluctuations are considere