Natural hydraulic fractures in the Wessex Basin, SW England: widespread distribution, composition and history

International audienceBedding-parallel veins of fibrous calcite ('beef') are historical in the Wessex Basin. The veins are common in Mesozoic mudstones and shales, especially of Liassic to Mid-Cretaceous ages. Cone-in-cone structures, which consist of multiple nested cones, are also well developed within the 'beef'. To investigate the distribution and the context of formation of 'beef' in the basin, we have made several field studies and analysed numerous samples. The veins are widespread vertically and horizontally in the sedimentary sequence, but they are especially common near or within potential source rocks for petroleum or near major tectonic faults. The internal structures of some 'beef' veins have revealed that they formed during Late Cretaceous to Tertiary compressional inversion of the basin. The typical composition for 'beef' is of calcite, with some pyrite and fragments of shale. However, inclusions or patches of hydrocarbons (liquid or solid) occur within calcite crystals or between fibres, respectively. According to some previous studies, as well as ours, 'beef' veins of the Wessex Basin represent natural hydraulic fractures, which formed as a result of fluid overpressure. This may have resulted in part from chemical compaction of petroleum source rocks, during Late Cretaceous to Tertiary times. Indeed, source rocks at outcrop in the Wessex Basin could be more mature than previously thought and the 'beef' veins may be good markers of maturation

Cenozoic reactivation of the Great Glen Fault, Scotland: additional evidence and possible causes

International audienceThe Great Glen Fault trends NNE-SSW across northern Scotland. According to previous studies, the Great Glen Fault developed as a left-lateral strike-slip fault during the Caledonian Orogeny (Ordovician to Early Devonian). However, it then reactivated right-laterally in the Tertiary. We discuss additional evidence for this later phase. At Eathie and Shandwick, minor folds and faults in fossiliferous Jurassic marine strata indicate post-depositional right-lateral slip. In Jurassic shale, we have found bedding-parallel calcite veins ('beef' and 'cone-in-cone') that may provide evidence for overpressure development and maturation of organic matter at significant depth. Thus, the Jurassic strata at Eathie and Shandwick accumulated deeper offshore in the Moray Firth and were subject to Cenozoic exhumation during right-lateral displacement along the Great Glen Fault, as suggested by previous researchers. Differential sea-floor spreading along the NE Atlantic ridge system generated left-lateral transpressional displacements along the Faroe Fracture Zone from the Early Eocene to the Late Oligocene (c. 47-26 Ma), a period of uplift and exhumation in Scotland. We suggest that such differential spreading was responsible for reactivation of the Great Glen Fault. Indeed, leftlateral slip along the Faroe Fracture Zone is compatible with right-lateral reactivation of the Great Glen Fault

Paleogene building of the Bolivian Orocline: Tectonic restoration of the central Andes in 2-D map view

International audienceUsing available information on the magnitude and age of tectonic shortening, as well as paleomagnetically determined tectonic rotations, we have run a series of 2-D map view restorations of the central Andes. Neogene shortening in the foreland belt induced only slight orogenic curvature of the central Andes. The constraints on the ages of the large observed fore-arc rotations (average of 37° counterclockwise in southern Peru and 29° clockwise in northern Chile) indicate that the Bolivian Orocline formed during the Eocene-Oligocene as a consequence of differential shortening focused in the Eastern Cordillera. To minimize local block rotations along the fore arc, the restoration that best fits the central Andean rotation pattern requires about 400 km of total (Paleogene plus Neogene) shortening near the Arica bend. This value corresponds to the upper bound of estimates of maximum horizontal shortening for the central Andes. Along-strike variations in horizontal shortening in the back arc induced bending of the continental margin, block rotations with fore-arc along-strike extension, and/or orogen-parallel transport of upper crustal material toward the symmetry axis of the orocline

Physical modelling of chemical compaction, overpressure development, hydraulic fracturing and thrust detachments in organic-rich source rock

International audienceGeological evidence for overpressure is common worldwide, especially in petroleum-rich sedimentary basins. As a result of an increasing emphasis on unconventional resources, new data are becoming available for source rocks. Abnormally high values of pore fluid pressure are especially common within mature source rock, probably as a result of chemical compaction and increases in volume during hydrocarbon generation. To investigate processes of chemical compaction, overpressure development and hydraulic fracturing, we have developed new techniques of physical modelling in a closed system. During the early stages of our work, we built and deformed models in a small rectangular box (40 40 10 cm), which rested on an electric flatbed heater; but more recently, in order to accommodate large amounts of horizontal shortening, we used a wider box (77 75 10 cm). Models consisted of horizontal layers of two materials: (1) a mixture of equal initial volumes of silica powder and beeswax micro-spheres, representing source rock, and (2) pure silica powder, representing overburden. By submerging these materials in water, we avoided the high surface tensions, which otherwise develop within pores containing both air and liquids. Also we were able to measure pore fluid pressure in a model well. During heating, the basal temperature of the model surpassed the melting point of beeswax (w62 C), reaching a maximum of 90 C. To investigate tectonic contexts of compression or extension, we used a piston to apply horizontal displacements. In experiments where the piston was static, rapid melting led to vertical compaction of the source layer, under the weight of overburden, and to high fluid overpressure (lithostatic or greater). Crosssections of the models, after cooling, revealed that molten wax had migrated through pore space and into open hydraulic fractures (sills). Most of these sills were horizontal and their roofs bulged upwards, as far as the free surface, presumably in response to internal overpressure and loss of strength of the mixture.We also found that sills were less numerous towards the sides of the box, presumably as a result of boundary effects. In other experiments, in which the piston moved inward, causing compression of the model, sills also formed. However, these were thicker than in static models and some of them were subject to folding or faulting. For experiments, in which we imposed some horizontal shortening, before the wax had started to melt, fore-thrusts and back-thrusts developed across all of the layers near the piston, producing a high-angle prism. In contrast, as soon as the wax melted, overpressure developed within the source layer and a basal detachment appeared beneath it. As a result, thin-skinned thrusts propagated further into the model, producing a low-angle prism. In some experiments, bodies of wax formed imbricate zones within the source layer. Thus, in these experiments, it was the transformation, from solid wax to liquid wax, which led to chemical compaction, overpressure development and hydraulic fracturing, all within a closed system. According to the measurements of overpressure, load transfer was the main mechanism, but volume changes also contributed, producing supra-lithostatic overpressure and therefore tensile failure of the mixture

Defining the limitations of measurements from Doppler spectral recordings

AbstractPurpose:The purpose of this study was to determine whether Doppler measurements of peak velocity and four other quantitative measures of spectral shape are affected significantly by the site of the Doppler recording in relation to the location of the maximum stenosis.Method: Continuous-wave and pulsed Doppler recordings were made distal to a 70% (area reduction or 45% diameter reduction) asymmetric stenosis in an in vitro flow model under steady and pulsatile flow conditions. Recordings were taken at six different locations proximal and distal to the stenosis. A photochromic dye technique was used to visualize the actual flow field in the model.Results: Distal to the stenosis, the flow visualization results demonstrated a strong radial and axial variation of the velocity field and thus explained why the Doppler measurements of peak frequency and spectral broadening were strongly dependent on the recording site. The peak frequency was maximum within the throat of the stenosis and returned to the prestenotic value five tube diameters distal to the stenosis. Other measurements of spectral broadening and spectral shape varied greatly depending on the location of the recording site in the poststenotic region. Higher order spectral moments such as the coefficient of kurtosis were found to exhibit large temporal variability, which makes them inappropriate as diagnostic indicators.Conclusions: Because of the complex nature of the poststenotic flow field, these results clearly demonstrate that no single Doppler measurement can accurately quantify the severity of a stenosis. Of the Doppler measurements only peak velocity is related to the severity of stenosis. Reproducible peak velocity measurements are obtained only if the Doppler sample volume is positioned at or very near the throat of the stenosis and at an appropriate radial site that may not necessarily be at the center of the vessel. (J Vasc Surg 1996;24:34-45.

Effects of margin-parallel shortening and density contrasts on back-arc extension during subduction: Experimental insights and possible application to Anatolia

International audienceSo as to investigate the parameters influencing subduction and back-arc extension, we have done three series of laboratory experiments (32 in all) on physical models. Each model consisted of adjacent oceanic and continental plates, floating on an asthenosphere. In experiments of Series A, a wide rigid piston, moving horizontally, controlled the rate of convergence of the oceanic and continental plates, whereas, in Series B or C, a wide or narrow piston produced lateral compression, parallel to the continent-ocean boundary (COB) and perpendicular to the subduction direction. The parameters that we tested were (1) the velocity of plate convergence (Series A), (2) the width of the compressing piston (Series B and C), and (3) the density ratio between oceanic and continental plates (Series B and C). This density ratio was a key factor. For a ratio of 1.4, the amount of extension in the continental plate increased regularly throughout time; for a ratio of 1.3, the extension remained small, until the piston stopped moving laterally; and for a ratio of 1.1, there was little or no extension. The width of the compressing piston had a smaller effect, although a narrow piston provided more space, into which the continental plate could extend. One possible application of our models is to Anatolia. Despite similar geological settings, the areas north of the Hellenic and Cyprus subduction zones differ, in that extension is large in the former and much smaller in the latter. We suggest that one of the main driving forces for Aegean extension may have been a high density ratio between subducting oceanic lithosphere and a Hellenic-Balkanic upper plate

Surpression de fluides et fracturation de roches mères en différents contextes tectoniques (modélisation analogique et exemples de terrain)

L'étude des surpressions de fluide et de fracturation hydraulique des roches mères peut nous renseigner sur les mécanismes de génération qui en sont à l'origine. Ces dernières années, l'intérêt pour ces phénomènes s'est largement accru, notamment sous l'influence des sociétés pétrolières qui exploitent les ressources non-conventionnelles au cœur des problèmes énergétiques actuels. Dans ce travail de thèse, nous avons choisi deux approches différentes pour l'étude de ces mécanismes : (1) des exemples de cas géologiques naturels, et (2) le développement de la modélisation analogique. Ainsi, nous montrons que ces phénomènes sont très répandus au sein des bassins sédimentaires et que leurs manifestations s'expriment notamment par la génération de veines fibreuses parallèles à la stratification de la roche (beef), mais également par la formation de veines d'hydrocarbures solides (bitume). Nous démontrons également que les surpressions de fluides peuvent profondément changer le style de déformation d'un bassin sédimentaire par la génération de niveaux de décollement localisés au sein même des roches mères. Enfin, à l'aide de la modélisation analogique, nous avons pu identifier les mécanismes à l'origine des surpressions de fluide et de la fracturation hydraulique. En effet, lors de la génération d'hydrocarbures la transformation de solide à liquide de la matière organique conduit à la compaction chimique des sédiments. Par un mécanisme de transfert de charge lors de ce processus, ainsi que par l'accroissement de volume associé, des surpressions de fluides se développent et atteignent des pressions lithostatiques, capables de fracturer hydrauliquement les roches.The study of fluid overpressures and hydraulic fracturing in source rocks can help us to understand the mechanisms, which are responsable for these phenomena. During the last few years, the interest in such processes has highly grown, especially through the influence of petroleum companies, which extract hydrocarbons from unconventional reservoirs. In this work, we have chosen to develop two different approaches for the study of these mechanisms: (1) field studies and (2) physical modelling. Thereby, we show that fluid overpressures and hydraulic fracturing are common in sedimentary basins worldwide. Bedding-parallel fibrous veins (beef) and solid hydrocarbon veins (bitumen) are the resulting structures. We also show that fluid overpressures can highly affect the deformation style in sedimentary basins, especially by causing thrust-detachments within source rocks. By the using of a new physcial modelling technique, we have identified the mechanisms, which are responsible for fluid overpressures and hydraulic fracturing. Indeed, during hydrocarbon generation, the solid organic matter becomes liquid, which leads to chemical compaction of the sediment. By a mechanism of load transfer, fluid overpressures rise to lithostatic values. However, volume changes also contribute, and are able to induce hydraulic fractures in the rocks.RENNES1-Bibl. électronique (352382106) / SudocSudocFranceF

Calcium transients in single adrenal chromaffin cells detected with aequorin

AbstractThe effect of 55 mM K+ and nicotine on intracellular free calcium was monitored in bovine adrenal chromaffin cells microinjected with aequorin. In contrast to results with quin 2, which suggested that stimulation of chromaffin cells resulted in sustained rises in free calcium, aequorin measurements showed that 55 mM K+ and nicotine resulted in a transient (60–90 s) elevation of free calcium. The peak free calcium and duration of the transient elicited by nicotine were dose-dependent. The concentration of nicotine (10 μM) giving a maximal secretory response gave a peak rise in free calcium of up to 1 μM. 55 mM K+ which only releases 30% of the catecholamine released by 10 μM nicotine generated a calcium transient indistinguishable from that due to 10 μM nicotine. These results support the idea that nicotinic agonists generate an alternative second messenger in addition to the rise in free calcium

Metabolic regulation of regulatory T cell development and function

It is now well established that the effector T cell (Teff) response is regulated by a series of metabolic switches. Quiescent T cells predominantly require ATP-generating processes, whereas proliferating Teff require high metabolic flux through growth-promoting pathways, such as glycolysis. Pathways that control metabolism and immune cell function are intimately linked, and changes in cell metabolism at both the cell and system levels have been shown to enhance or suppress specific T cell effector functions. Furthermore, functionally distinct T cell subsets have been shown to require distinct energetic and biosynthetic pathways to support their specific functional needs. In particular, naturally occurring regulatory T cells (Treg) are characterized by a unique metabolic signature distinct to that of conventional Teff cells. We here briefly review the signaling pathways that control Treg metabolism and how this metabolic phenotype integrates their differentiation and function. Ultimately, these metabolic features may provide new opportunities for the therapeutic modulation of unwanted immune responses