Laws and norms with (un)observable actions

We analyze the interactions between social norms, the prevalence of acts, and policies when people cannot directly observe actors’ behavior and must rely on noisy proxies. Norms provide ineffective incentives when acts are committed either very frequently or very infrequently, because noisy signals of behavior are then too weak to alter people’s beliefs about others’ behavior. This cuts against the dynamics of the ‘honor-stigma’ model (Bénabou and Tirole 2006; 2011), and leads to the opposite positive and normative conclusions with even modest errors. The review process through which public signals are provided is then an additional policy variable. When the cost of financing material rewards is high, it is optimal to rely solely on ‘symbolic rewards’ coupled with review standards that maximize reputational incentives, implying stricter criteria when there are weaker social norms. When material rewards are also used, review standards are stricter than that which would maximize reputational incentives

The protective effect of Malva sylvestris on rat kidney damaged by vanadium

<p>Abstract</p> <p>Background</p> <p>The protective effect of the common mallow (Malva sylvestris) decoction on renal damages in rats induced by ammonium metavanadate poisoning was evaluated. On the one hand, vanadium toxicity is associated to the production of reactive oxygen species, causing a lipid peroxidation and an alteration in the enzymatic antioxidant defence. On the other hand, many medicinal plants are known to possess antioxidant and radical scavenging properties, thanks to the presence of flavonoids. These properties were confirmed in Malva sylvestris by two separate methods; namely, the Diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl assay and the Nitroblue Tetrazolium reduction assay.</p> <p>Results</p> <p>In 80 rats exposed to ammonium metavanadate (0.24 mmol/kg body weight in drinking water) for 90 days, lipid peroxidation levels and superoxide dismutase, catalase and glutathione peroxidase activities were measured in kidney. A significant increase in the formation of free radicals and antioxidant enzyme activities was noticed. In addition, a histological examination of kidney revealed a structural deterioration of the renal cortical capsules and a shrinking of the Bowman space. In animals intoxicated by metavanadate but also given a Malva sylvestris decoction (0.2 g dry mallow/kg body weight), no such pathologic features were observed: lipid peroxidation levels, antioxidant enzyme activities and histological features appeared normal as compared to control rats.</p> <p>Conclusion</p> <p>Malva sylvestris is proved to have a high antioxidative potential thanks to its richness in phenolic compounds.</p

Pyrosequencing analysis of fungal assemblages from geographically distant, disparate soils reveals spatial patterning and a core mycobiome

Identifying a soil core microbiome is crucial to appreciate the established microbial consortium, which is not usually subjected to change and, hence, possibly resistant/resilient to disturbances and a varying soil context. Fungi are a major part of soil biodiversity, yet the mechanisms driving their large-scale ecological ranges and distribution are poorly understood. The degree of fungal community overlap among 16 soil samples from distinct ecosystems and distant geographic localities (truffle grounds, a Mediterranean agro-silvo-pastoral system, serpentine substrates and a contaminated industrial area) was assessed by examining the distribution of fungal ITS1 and ITS2 sequences in a dataset of 454 libraries. ITS1 and ITS2 sequences were assigned to 1,660 and 1,393 Operational Taxonomic Units (OTUs; as defined by 97% sequence similarity), respectively. Fungal beta-diversity was found to be spatially autocorrelated. At the level of individual OTUs, eight ITS1 and seven ITS2 OTUs were found in all soil sample groups. These ubiquitous taxa comprised generalist fungi with oligotrophic and chitinolytic abilities, suggesting that a stable core of fungi across the complex soil fungal assemblages is either endowed with the capacity of sustained development in the nutrient-poor soil conditions or with the ability to exploit organic resources (such as chitin) universally distributed in soils

Endophytic Life Strategies Decoded by Genome and Transcriptome Analyses of the Mutualistic Root Symbiont Piriformospora indica

Recent sequencing projects have provided deep insight into fungal lifestyle-associated genomic adaptations. Here we report on the 25 Mb genome of the mutualistic root symbiont Piriformospora indica (Sebacinales, Basidiomycota) and provide a global characterization of fungal transcriptional responses associated with the colonization of living and dead barley roots. Extensive comparative analysis of the P. indica genome with other Basidiomycota and Ascomycota fungi that have diverse lifestyle strategies identified features typically associated with both, biotrophism and saprotrophism. The tightly controlled expression of the lifestyle-associated gene sets during the onset of the symbiosis, revealed by microarray analysis, argues for a biphasic root colonization strategy of P. indica. This is supported by a cytological study that shows an early biotrophic growth followed by a cell death-associated phase. About 10% of the fungal genes induced during the biotrophic colonization encoded putative small secreted proteins (SSP), including several lectin-like proteins and members of a P. indica-specific gene family (DELD) with a conserved novel seven-amino acids motif at the C-terminus. Similar to effectors found in other filamentous organisms, the occurrence of the DELDs correlated with the presence of transposable elements in gene-poor repeat-rich regions of the genome. This is the first in depth genomic study describing a mutualistic symbiont with a biphasic lifestyle. Our findings provide a significant advance in understanding development of biotrophic plant symbionts and suggest a series of incremental shifts along the continuum from saprotrophy towards biotrophy in the evolution of mycorrhizal association from decomposer fungi

Contrasting demographic histories revealed in two invasive populations of the dry rot fungus Serpula lacrymans

Globalization and international trade have impacted organisms around the world leading to a considerable number of species establishing in new geographic areas. Many organisms have taken advantage of human-made environments, including buildings. One such species is the dry rot fungus Serpula lacrymans, which is the most aggressive wood-decay fungus in indoor environments in temperate regions. Using population genomic analyses of 36 full genome sequenced isolates, we demonstrated that European and Japanese isolates are highly divergent and the populations split 3000–19,000 generations ago, probably predating human influence. Approximately 250 generations ago, the European population went through a tight bottleneck, probably corresponding to the fungus colonization of the built environment in Europe. The demographic history of these populations, probably lead to low adaptive potential. Only two loci under selection were identified using a Fst outlier approach, and selective sweep analyses identified three loci with extended haplotype homozygosity. The selective sweep analyses found signals in genes possibly related to decay of various substrates in Japan and in genes involved DNA replication and protein modification in Europe. Our results suggest that the dry rot fungus independently established in indoor environments in Europe and Japan and that invasive species can potentially establish large populations in new habitats based on a few colonizing individuals

RNA interference and nonviral targeted gene therapy of experimental brain cancer

According to isotopic labeling experiments, most of the carbon used by truffle (Tuber sp.) fruiting bodies to develop underground is provided by host trees, suggesting that trees and truffles are physically connected. However, such physical link between trees and truffle fruiting bodies has never been observed.We discovered fruiting bodies of Tuber aestivum adhering to the walls of a belowground quarry and we took advantage of this unique situation to analyze the physical structure that supported these fruiting bodies in the open air. Observation of transversal sections of the attachment structure indicated that it was organized in ducts made of gleba-like tissue and connected to a network of hyphae traveling across soil particles.Only one mating type was detected by PCR in the gleba and in the attachment structure, suggesting that these two organs are from maternal origin, leaving open the question of the location of the opposite paternal mating type

O poder e a luta pela propriedade da terra no vale do rio Iconha/Piúma: o caso Thomaz Dutton Junior (1870-1906)

Ao chegar ao povoado de Piúma, região sul capixaba, por volta dos anos iniciais da década de 1870, Thomaz Dutton Junior, inglês de nascimento e mais tarde naturalizado brasileiro, desejava fazer parte da boa sociedade e ter direito a todas as prerrogativas que o grupo proporcionaria. No território de Piúma, adquiriu boa parte da massa falida de João Baptista Rodocanachi, um comerciante grego de grosso trato que explorava madeiras de lei e as comercializava para construção civil e naval. Na fazenda Monte Bello, após instalar colonos ingleses, Thomaz Dutton se envolveu em querelas jurídico-fundiárias com mandões do lugar com quem tinha relações interdependentes, sobretudo com Alexandrino Pires Martins e José Gonçalves Costa Beiriz, que ocultavam, ao fim e ao cabo, um complexo jogo por disputas políticas locais, por prestígio, por boa reputação e poder. No seio dessas disputas estava a propriedade da terra, símbolo de poder e mando, que o levou à insolvência. Este estudo investiga a trajetória de Thomaz Dutton, pautando-se na teoria da Configuração de Norbert Elias associada à teoria do Poder Simbólico de Pierre Bourdier. Objetiva compreender a maneira como as práticas do poder são materializadas nas relações sociais, identificando a aprendizagem extraída de relações interdependentes bem como os valores construídos a partir delas. Parte de análises de fontes documentais, como relatórios presidenciais provinciais, requerimentos, atas, cartas e artigos de jornais corpus documental, dominante nesta investigação , buscando vestígios no conteúdo dos discursos ali inseridos para poder descortinar as tramas do tecido social com lentes de objetivas aumentadas. Desse modo, torna possível trazer à tona a história local do território do vale do Iconha/Piúma no espaço de tempo entre 1870 e 1906 e assim expor suas particularidades e singularidades, inserindo-a no contexto da história regional capixaba e nacional. Destarte, usando o alicerce teórico-metodológico já apresentado, destaca as particularidades e feitos do passado da sociedade piumense que ainda estavam fora do campo de experiência e precisavam ser conhecidas para fazer parte da História do Espírito Santo

Insight into trade‐off between wood decay and parasitism from the genome of a fungal forest pathogen

Peer Reviewedhttp://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/91191/1/j.1469-8137.2012.04128.x.pd