Projected climate change implications for the South Australian flora

South Australia has warmed since 1950 and further temperature increases are forecast this century. We explore the implications of climatic warming for individual plant species and the State’s plant biodiversity, which is significant and includes 418 endemic taxa. Environmental constraints and interspecific interactions operate on species to determine which survive in which environment, with resulting compositional signatures. Climate change influences such ‘filtering’ processes via mechanisms such as altered mortality or recruitment rates and indirectly through fire regimes. While modest environmental changes can be absorbed within a given ecological community, significant change will eventually drive species turnover. We use the Hopbush, Dodonaea viscosa subsp. angustissima (DC.) J.G.West as a case study that shows morphological adaptations to arid conditions (narrower leaves and higher stomatal densities), observed in more northern populations in South Australia. Leaves of this species have narrowed through time in conjunction with climatic warming, matching predictions from the spatial cline. Genomic sequencing has also revealed genetic correlations with temperature and aridity, suggesting key climate change variables are impacting the selection of functional genes including those linked to leaf characters. Despite such adaptations in individual species, plant community composition is sensitive to small changes in climate. As a result, predicted climatic changes may ultimately drive complete species turnover, if the more severe scenarios are realised. Spatial analysis highlights a climatic transition zone, between desert and Mediterranean South Australia, where community composition changes more rapidly with climate and this area is therefore likely to be more vulnerable to climate change. Notwithstanding potential evolutionary adaptation, significant climate change will influence ecophysiology, leading to changes in primary productivity and water stress and is predicted to ultimately lead to lower species richness, altered species composition and more uneven abundances. Although we have an empirical understanding of climate sensitivity for South Australian plant communities, we need sophisticated ecological forecasting that considers complex interactions with fire, habitat configuration and evolutionary adaptation.G.R. Guerin, M.J. Christmas, B. Sparrow, A.J. Low

Leaf nitrogen from first principles: field evidence for adaptive variation with climate

Nitrogen content per unit leaf area (Narea) is a key variable in plant functional ecology and biogeochemistry. Narea comprises a structural component, which scales with leaf mass per area (LMA), and a metabolic component, which scales with Rubisco capacity. The co-ordination hypothesis, as implemented in LPJ and related global vegetation models, predicts that Rubisco capacity should be directly proportional to irradiance but should decrease with increases in ci : ca and temperature because the amount of Rubisco required to achieve a given assimilation rate declines with increases in both. We tested these predictions using LMA, leaf δ13C, and leaf N measurements on complete species assemblages sampled at sites on a north–south transect from tropical to temperate Australia. Partial effects of mean canopy irradiance, mean annual temperature, and ci : ca (from δ13C) on Narea were all significant and their directions and magnitudes were in line with predictions. Over 80 % of the variance in community-mean (ln) Narea was accounted for by these predictors plus LMA. Moreover, Narea could be decomposed into two components, one proportional to LMA (slightly steeper in N-fixers), and the other to Rubisco capacity as predicted by the co-ordination hypothesis. Trait gradient analysis revealed ci : ca to be perfectly plastic, while species turnover contributed about half the variation in LMA and Narea. Interest has surged in methods to predict continuous leaf-trait variation from environmental factors, in order to improve ecosystem models. Coupled carbon–nitrogen models require a method to predict Narea that is more realistic than the widespread assumptions that Narea is proportional to photosynthetic capacity, and/or that Narea (and photosynthetic capacity) are determined by N supply from the soil. Our results indicate that Narea has a useful degree of predictability, from a combination of LMA and ci : ca – themselves in part environmentally determined – with Rubisco activity, as predicted from local growing conditions. This finding is consistent with a "plant-centred" approach to modelling, emphasizing the adaptive regulation of traits. Models that account for biodiversity will also need to partition community-level trait variation into components due to phenotypic plasticity and/or genotypic differentiation within species vs. progressive species replacement, along environmental gradients. Our analysis suggests that variation in Narea is about evenly split between these two modes.Ning Dong, Iain Colin Prentice, Bradley J. Evans, Stefan Caddy-Retalic, Andrew J. Lowe and Ian J. Wrigh

Plant families exhibit unique geographic trends in C4 richness and cover in Australia

Numerous studies have analysed the relationship between C4 plant cover and climate. However, few have examined how different C4 taxa vary in their response to climate, or how environmental factors alter C4:C3 abundance. Here we investigate (a) how proportional C4 plant cover and richness (relative to C3) responds to changes in climate and local environmental factors, and (b) if this response is consistent among families. Proportional cover and richness of C4 species were determined at 541 one-hectare plots across Australia for 14 families. C4 cover and richness of the most common and abundant families were regressed against climate and local parameters. C4 richness and cover in the monocot families Poaceae and Cyperaceae increased with latitude and were strongly positively correlated with January temperatures, however C4 Cyperaceae occupied a more restricted temperature range. Seasonal rainfall, soil pH, soil texture, and tree cover modified proportional C4 cover in both families. Eudicot families displayed considerable variation in C4 distribution patterns. Proportional C4 Euphorbiaceae richness and cover were negatively correlated with increased moisture availability (i.e. high rainfall and low aridity), indicating they were more common in dry environments. Proportional C4 Chenopodiaceae richness and cover were weakly correlated with climate and local environmental factors, including soil texture. However, the explanatory power of C4 Chenopodiaceae models were poor, suggesting none of the factors considered in this study strongly influenced Chenopodiaceae distribution. Proportional C4 richness and cover in Aizoaceae, Amaranthaceae, and Portulacaceae increased with latitude, suggesting C4 cover and richness in these families increased with temperature and summer rainfall, but sample size was insufficient for regression analysis. Results demonstrate the unique relationships between different C4 taxa and climate, and the significant modifying effects of environmental factors on C4 distribution. Our work also revealed C4 families will not exhibit similar responses to local perturbations or climate.Samantha E. M. MunroeID, Francesca A. McInerney, Greg R. Guerin, Jake W. Andrae, Nina WeltiID, Stefan Caddy-Retalic, Rachel Atkins, Ben Sparro

A vegetation and soil survey method for surveillance monitoring of rangeland environments

Published: 16 June 2020Ecosystem surveillance monitoring is critical to managing natural resources and especially so under changing environments. Despite this importance, the design and implementation of monitoring programs across large temporal and spatial scales has been hampered by the lack of appropriately standardized methods and data streams. To address this gap, we outline a surveillance monitoring method based on permanent plots and voucher samples suited to rangeland environments around the world that is repeatable, cost-effective, appropriate for large-scale comparisons, and adaptable to other global biomes. The method provides comprehensive data on vegetation composition and structure along with soil attributes relevant to plant growth, delivered as a combination of modules that can be targeted for different purposes or available resources. Plots are located in a stratified design across vegetation units, landforms, and climates to enhance continental and global comparisons. Changes are investigated through revisits. Vegetation is measured to inform on composition, cover, and structure. Samples of vegetation and soils are collected and tracked by barcode labels and stored long-term for subsequent analysis. Technology is used to enhance the accuracy of field methods, including differential GPS plot locations, instrument-based Leaf Area Index (LAI) measures, and three dimensional photo-panoramas for advanced analysis. A key feature of the method is the use of electronic field data collection to enhance data delivery into a publicly accessible database. Our method is pragmatic, whilst still providing consistent data, information, and samples on key vegetation and soil attributes. The method is operational and has been applied at more than 704 field locations across the Australian rangelands as part of the Ecosystem Surveillance program of the Terrestrial Ecosystem Research Network (TERN). The methodology enables continental analyses and has been tested in communities broadly representative of rangelands globally, with components being applicable to other biomes. Here we also recommend the consultative process and guiding principles that drove the development of this method as an approach for development of the method into other biomes. The consistent, standardized and objective method enables continental, and potentially global analyses than were not previously possible with disparate programs and datasets.Ben D. Sparrow, Jeff N. Foulkes, Glenda M. Wardle, Emrys J. Leitch, Stefan Caddy-Retalic, Stephen J. van Leeuwen ... et al

Functional acclimation across microgeographic scales in Dodonaea viscosa

Intraspecific plant functional trait variation provides mechanistic insight into persistence and can infer population adaptive capacity. However, most studies explore intraspecific trait variation in systems where geographic and environmental distances co-vary. Such a design reduces the certainty of trait-environment associations, and it is imperative for studies that make trait-environment associations be conducted in systems where environmental distance varies independently of geographic distance. Here we explored trait variation in such a system, and aimed to: (i) quantify trait variation of parent and offspring generations, and associate this variation to parental environments; (ii) determine the traits which best explain population differences; (iii) compare parent and offspring trait-trait relationships. We characterized 15 plant functional traits in eight populations of a shrub with a maximum separation ca. 100 km. Populations differed markedly in aridity and elevation, and environmental distance varied independently of geographic distance. We measured traits in parent populations collected in the field, as well as their offspring reared in greenhouse conditions. Parent traits regularly associated with their environment. These associations were largely lost in the offspring generation, indicating considerable phenotypic plasticity. An ordination of parent traits showed clear structure with strong influence of leaf area, specific leaf area, stomatal traits, isotope δ¹³C and δ¹⁵N ratios, and Narea, whereas the offspring ordination was less structured. Parent trait-trait correlations were in line with expectations from the leaf economic spectrum. We show considerable trait plasticity in the woody shrub over microgeographic scales (<100 km), indicating it has the adaptive potential within a generation to functionally acclimate to a range of abiotic conditions. Since our study shrub is commonly used for restoration in southern Australia and local populations do not show strong genetic differentiation in functional traits, the potential risks of transferring seed across the broad environmental conditions are not likely to be a significant issue.Zdravko Baruch, Alice R. Jones, Kathryn E. Hill, Francesca A. McInerney, Colette Blyth, Stefan Caddy-Retalic, Matthew J. Christmas, Nicholas J. C. Gellie, Andrew J. Lowe, Irene Martin-Fores, Kristine E. Nielson and Martin F. Bree

Bioclimatic transect networks: powerful observatories of ecological change

First published: 19 May 2017Transects that traverse substantial climate gradients are important tools for climate change research and allow questions on the extent to which phenotypic variation associates with climate, the link between climate and species distributions, and variation in sensitivity to climate change among biomes to be addressed. However, the potential limitations of individual transect studies have recently been highlighted. Here, we argue that replicating and networking transects, along with the introduction of experimental treatments, addresses these concerns. Transect networks provide cost-effective and robust insights into ecological and evolutionary adaptation and improve forecasting of ecosystem change. We draw on the experience and research facilitated by the Australian Transect Network to demonstrate our case, with examples, to clarify how population- and community-level studies can be integrated with observations from multiple transects, manipulative experiments, genomics, and ecological modeling to gain novel insights into how species and systems respond to climate change. This integration can provide a spatiotemporal understanding of past and future climate-induced changes, which will inform effective management actions for promoting biodiversity resilience.Stefan Caddy-Retalic, Alan N. Andersen, Michael J. Aspinwall, Martin F. Breed, Margaret Byrne, Matthew J. Christmas, Ning Dong, Bradley J. Evans, Damien A. Fordham, Greg R. Guerin, Ary A. Hoffmann, Alice C. Hughes, Stephen J. van Leeuwen, Francesca A. McInerney, Suzanne M. Prober, Maurizio Rossetto, Paul D. Rymer, Dorothy A. Steane, Glenda M. Wardle, Andrew J. Low

Leaf trait associations with environmental variation in the wide-ranging shrub Dodonaea viscosa subsp. angustissima (Sapindaceae)

Intra-species variation in specific leaf area (SLA) and leaf area (LA) provides mechanistic insight into the persistence and function of plants, including their likely success under climate change and their suitability for revegetation. We measured SLA and LA in 101 Australian populations of the perennial shrub Dodonaea viscosa (L.) Jacq. subsp. angustissima (narrow-leaf hop-bush) (Sapindaceae). Populations were located across about a 1000 km north–south gradient, with climate grading from arid desert to mesic Mediterranean. We also measured leaves from 11 populations across an elevational gradient (300–800 m asl), where aridity and temperature decrease with elevation. We used regression and principal component analyses to relate leaf traits to the abiotic environment. SLA displayed clinal variation, increasing from north to south and correlated with latitude and the first principal component of joint environmental variables. Both SLA and LA correlated positively with most climatic and edaphic variables. Across latitude, LA showed more variability than SLA. Changes in leaf density and thickness may have caused the relative stability of SLA. Only LA decreased with elevation. The absence of a SLA response to elevation could be a consequence of abiotic conditions that favour low SLA at both ends of the elevational gradient. We demonstrated that the widely distributed narrow-leaf hop-bush shows considerable variability in LA and SLA, which allows it to persist in a broad environmental envelope. As this shrub is widely used for revegetation in Australia, South America and the Asia-Pacific region, our results are consistent with the notion that seed used to revegetate mesic environments could be sourced from more arid areas to increase seed suitability to future climate change.Zdravko Baruch, Matthew J. Christmas, Martin F. Breed, Greg R. Guerin, Stefan Caddy-Retalic, John Mcdonald, Duncan I. Jardine, Emrys Leitch, Nick Gellie, Kathryn Hill, Kimberly Mccallum and Andrew J. Low

Enemies with benefits: parasitic endoliths protect mussels against heat stress

Positive and negative aspects of species interactions can be context dependant and strongly affected by environmental conditions. We tested the hypothesis that, during periods of intense heat stress, parasitic phototrophic endoliths that fatally degrade mollusc shells can benefit their mussel hosts. Endolithic infestation significantly reduced body temperatures of sun-exposed mussels and, during unusually extreme heat stress, parasitised individuals suffered lower mortality rates than nonparasitised hosts. This beneficial effect was related to the white discolouration caused by the excavation activity of endoliths. Under climate warming, species relationships may be drastically realigned and conditional benefits of phototrophic endolithic parasites may become more important than the costs of infestation

Cheating the locals: invasive mussels steal and benefit from the cooling effect of indigenous mussels

The indigenous South African mussel Perna perna gapes during periods of aerial exposure to maintain aerobic respiration. This behaviour has no effect on the body temperatures of isolated individuals, but when surrounded by conspecifics, beneficial cooling effects of gaping emerge. It is uncertain, however, whether the presence of the invasive mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis limits the ability of P. perna for collective thermoregulation. We investigated whether varying densities of P. perna and M. galloprovincialis influences the thermal properties of both natural and artificial mussel beds during periods of emersion. Using infrared thermography, body temperatures of P. perna within mixed artificial beds were shown to increase faster and reach higher temperatures than individuals in conspecific beds, indicating that the presence of M. galloprovincialis limits the group cooling effects of gaping. In contrast, body temperatures of M. galloprovincialis within mixed artificial mussel beds increased slower and exhibited lower temperatures than for individuals in beds comprised entirely of M. galloprovincialis. Interestingly, differences in bed temperatures and heating rates were largely dependent on the size of mussels, with beds comprised of larger individuals experiencing less thermal stress irrespective of species composition. The small-scale patterns of thermal stress detected within manipulated beds were not observed within naturally occurring mixed mussel beds. We propose that small-scale differences in topography, size-structure, mussel bed size and the presence of organisms encrusting the mussel shells mask the effects of gaping behaviour within natural mussel beds. Nevertheless, the results from our manipulative experiment indicate that the invasive species M. galloprovincialis steals thermal properties as well as resources from the indigenous mussel P. perna. This may have significant implications for predicting how the co-existence of these two species may change as global temperatures continue to rise

Introducing BASE: the Biomes of Australian Soil Environments soil microbial diversity database

Corrected by: Erratum: Introducing BASE: The Biomes of Australian Soil Environments soil microbial diversity database [GigaScience. 5, 1, (2016) (1-11)] DOI: 10.1186/s13742-016-0126-5. In GigaScience 6(5):1, the authorship list should have included Leon Court, who was responsible for sample collection and preparation, sampling design and sequencing method design. The authors regret this omission.BACKGROUND Microbial inhabitants of soils are important to ecosystem and planetary functions, yet there are large gaps in our knowledge of their diversity and ecology. The ‘Biomes of Australian Soil Environments’ (BASE) project has generated a database of microbial diversity with associated metadata across extensive environmental gradients at continental scale. As the characterisation of microbes rapidly expands, the BASE database provides an evolving platform for interrogating and integrating microbial diversity and function. FINDINGS BASE currently provides amplicon sequences and associated contextual data for over 900 sites encompassing all Australian states and territories, a wide variety of bioregions, vegetation and land-use types. Amplicons target bacteria, archaea and general and fungal-specific eukaryotes. The growing database will soon include metagenomics data. Data are provided in both raw sequence (FASTQ) and analysed OTU table formats and are accessed via the project’s data portal, which provides a user-friendly search tool to quickly identify samples of interest. Processed data can be visually interrogated and intersected with other Australian diversity and environmental data using tools developed by the ‘Atlas of Living Australia’. CONCLUSIONS Developed within an open data framework, the BASE project is the first Australian soil microbial diversity database. The database will grow and link to other global efforts to explore microbial, plant, animal, and marine biodiversity. Its design and open access nature ensures that BASE will evolve as a valuable tool for documenting an often overlooked component of biodiversity and the many microbe-driven processes that are essential to sustain soil function and ecosystem services.Andrew Bissett, Anna Fitzgerald, Thys Meintjes, Pauline M. Mele, Frank Reith, Paul G. Dennis, Martin F. Breed, Belinda Brown, Mark V. Brown, Joel Brugger, Margaret Byrne, Stefan Caddy-Retalic, Bernie Carmody, David J. Coates, Carolina Correa, Belinda C. Ferrari, Vadakattu V. S. R. Gupta, Kelly Hamonts, Asha Haslem, Philip Hugenholtz, Mirko Karan, Jason Koval, Andrew J. Lowe, Stuart Macdonald, Leanne McGrath, David Martin, Matt Morgan, Kristin I. North, Chanyarat Paungfoo-Lonhienne, Elise Pendall, Lori Phillips, Rebecca Pirzl, Jeff R. Powell, Mark A. Ragan, Susanne Schmidt, Nicole Seymour, Ian Snape, John R. Stephen, Matthew Stevens, Matt Tinning, Kristen Williams, Yun Kit Yeoh, Carla M. Zammit, and Andrew Youn