Sex determination of young nursery Jojoba (Simmondsia chinensis L.) plants using morphological traits in semi arid areas of Voi, Kenya

Jojoba (Simmondsia chinensis L.) is a dioecious desert shrub that produces highly valued oil for cosmetics and lubrication. Most of the existing plantations have low yields due to high ratio 1:1 of the males compared to the females. However, there is no existing morphological trait method for distinguishing sex at an early age in Jojoba. Use of morphological traits for identifying sex at the juvenile stage is economical and more practicable for field workers hence more preferred than the molecular marker technique. To overcome this problem, two experiments were carried out with an objective of identifying sex of young Jojoba plants using morphological traits. The first experiment was set up using nursery seedlings whereas the second used rooted cuttings. The experimental design was a Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) consisting of 8 treatments replicated 3 times. The treatments consisted of 4 males and 4 females per replicate which were selected using stratified random sampling. Foliage morphological data was collected from both the seedlings and rooted cuttings according to a modified Jojoba descriptors procedure. The nursery seedlings were raised in an open nursery whereas those of the rooted cuttings were carried out in a polythene sheet tunnel. These experiments were carried out from February to August 2012. Data was analyzed using SAS statistical package whereas means were separated by Least Significant Difference (LSD). The results for seedlings showed that foliage morphological traits for single leaf area in male seedlings (4.4 cm2) were significantly higher (p< 0.05) compared to the female seedlings (3.2 cm2). However, all the other foliage variables did not show any significant difference  although male seedlings were greater in leaf length, leaf width, number of leaves, total leaf area and leaf area/0.3m relative to the female seedlings by 13%, 14%, 19%, 63% and 69% respectively. The females were superior in only leaf shape index by 1.4% compared with the males. On the other hand, rooted cuttings showed a similar pattern with those of seedlings although there was no significant difference in all the morphological traits measured. However, males showed higher foliage growth compared with the females in leaf length, leaf width, single leaf area, number of leaves and total leaf area by 37%, 43%, 95%, 155% and 458% respectively. The results indicate that single leaf area can be used for sex differentiation in juvenile Jojoba plants hence recommended at the nursery stage in order to determine the right planting ratio of male to female of 1: 10 respectively in the field for maximum stand production. Further research is recommended for a longer period to identify other foliage traits useful for sexing of Jojoba nursery plants. Keywords: Jojoba plants, sex determination, morphological trait

Studies on Seed Size and Storage on Germinability and Performance of young Jojoba (Simmondsia Chinensis L.) Seedlings in Semi-arid Areas of Kenya

Jojoba (Simmondsia chinesis L.) is a highly valued desert shrub for its oil which is equivalent to that of Sperm Whale, a threatened species by extinction. Cultivation of Jojoba in arid areas means provision of a cash-crop, environmental conservation and preservation of the Whale. Its seeds vary in size depending on genotype, season and seed lot. An experiment was setup in September 2012 with an objective of characterizing seed and determining the effect of size and storage on germination. The experiment was laid down in a Completely Randomized Design (CRD) with three treatments replicated thrice for the first two experiments.  However, the third experiment was a factorial one with eight treatments. The seeds were grouped into three categories which were large (1,047 mg), medium (697 mg) and small (333 mg/seed). The results revealed that large seeds had significantly (P< 0.05) higher germination percentage (76%) compared with medium (33%) and small (37%) seeds. Large seeds were found to contain large cotyledon size. Large cotyledons provide a large food reserve which is essential for germination and early vigorous growth. Seed length and 100 seed weight were significantly (P≤0.05) higher for large seed as compared to medium and small seeds. Similarly, large seeds recorded a germination of 93% for a short storage of  six months which was superior to that of small seeds  which was 17% for the same period. Hence seed length and 100 seed weight were found to be reliable variables for characterizing Jojoba seeds which may be used in predicting germinability. We recommended that for enhanced germination and vigorous growth of seedlings, it is necessary to select and plant large Jojoba seeds which have been stored for period less than one year. Keywords: Jojoba, seed, characterization, germination, growt

Assessment of the Quality of coffee parchments in Southern Highlands of Tanzania: A case of Mbozi District in Songwe Region

It’s unfortunate that even a single defective of a coffee bean can contribute to affect the receptive-lot of coffee. Coffee parchments or beans with high quality fetches high price in the world market. The study aimed at assessing the quality of coffee parchments along the post-harvest stages. Main focus was on improvement of post-harvest practices for coffee quality of coffee from farm level and to the processing under supervision of primary societies. The study involved coffee farmers in 6 Agricultural Marketing and Cooperatives Societies (AMCOS). Questionnaire, check list tools and physical observation were used for data collection. The result indicates that coffee farmers in Tanzania failed to fetch a good price from their produce due to low grades and classes of coffee parchments. Low grades and classes were observed to be attributed by application of poor practices along the coffee value chain. Our study suggests that, coffee stakeholders and the government should support the development of coffee sector along the value chain by up-scaling of good practices. Keywords: Coffee Quality; Red-Cherries and Parchments, Mbozi Tanzani

Germination and Seedling Growth of <em>Entandrophragma bussei</em> Harms ex Engl. from Wild Populations

Entandrophragma bussei Harms ex Engl. (wooden banana) is an important indigenous multipurpose tree species endemic to Tanzania. The species has a long history of human use but recent increased utilization pressure, deforestation and high mortality rate of seedlings threaten the survival of natural populations in the wilderness. Therefore, to facilitate domestication, two experimental studies were conducted to evaluate variations in seed germination and seedling growth of three wild populations at the Directorate of Tree Seed Production Laboratories in Morogoro, Tanzania. Germination percentage, mean germination rate, final germination rate and germination index varied significantly among the populations. In terms of seedling growth there was a significant difference in number of leaves among the populations at 3 months of age. The number of course roots and seedling shoot fresh weight varied significantly among the studied populations at 10 months of age. Ruaha population had the highest survival (56%) followed by Kigwe (41%) and Tarangire being the last (36%). The two experiments have clearly demonstrated the existence of considerable variation in germination and seedling growth traits in E. bussei. These traits may prove to be important tools for selection of suitable seed sources for domestication and tree improvement programmes

What Is the Evidence Base for Climate-Smart Agriculture in East and Southern Africa? A Systematic Map

More than 500 million USD will soon be invested in climate-smart agriculture (CSA) programmes in sub-Saharan Africa. Improving smallholder farm management is the core of most of these programmes. However, there has been no comprehensive information available to evaluate how changing agricultural practices increases food production, improves resilience of farming systems and livelihoods, and mitigates climate change—the goals of CSA. Here, we present a systematic map—an overview of the availability of scientific evidence—for CSA in five African countries: Tanzania, Malawi, Mozambique, Zimbabwe and Zambia. We conducted a systematic literature search of the effects of 102 technologies, including farm management practices (e.g., leguminous intercropped agroforestry, increased protein content of livestock diets, etc.), on 57 indicators consistent with CSA goals (e.g., yield, water use efficiency, carbon sequestration, etc.) as part of an effort called the "CSA Compendium". Our search of peer-reviewed articles in Web of Science and Scopus produced 150,567 candidate papers across developing countries in the global tropics. We screened titles, abstracts and full texts against predetermined inclusion criteria, for example that the investigation took place in a tropical developing country and contains primary data on how both a CSA practice and non-CSA control affect a preselected indicator. More than 1500 papers met these criteria from Africa, of which, 153 contained data collected in one of the five countries. Mapping the studies shows geographic and topical clustering in a few locations, around relatively few measures of CSA and for a limited number of commodities, indicating potential for skewed results and highlighting gaps in the evidence. This study sets the baseline for the availability of evidence to support CSA programming in the five countries

Miombo woodland under threat : Consequences for tree diversity and carbon storage

Agriculture is expanding rapidly in the miombo woodlands of sub-Saharan Africa. Clear felling results in the loss of species and ecosystem services. The remaining woodland is used as a vital support system for the farming communities, and the impact of this utilisation on biodiversity and ecosystem service provision is not clear. Understanding these effects will aid the development of effective, sustainable land management strategies for multiple outcomes, including biodiversity conservation and resource utilisation. This study provides new data on miombo woodland tree species diversity, structure and carbon storage from a 8766km2 landscape in south-western Tanzania, which is undergoing rapid conversion to tobacco cultivation.Human utilisation of the woodland was classified by ground surveys which recorded evidence of use (e.g. cut poles and timber, removal of bark and roots, access routes). Nine sites were surveyed and categorised into three groups: high, medium and low utilisation. To determine the effect of utilisation on the tree community stem density, diameter at breast height, tree species richness and carbon storage were recorded. In the low utilisation sites carbon storage was similar to that found in other miombo woodlands (28tHa-1), and the Shannon Wiener diversity score for tree species diversity was 3.44. However, in the high utilisation sites, tree species diversity (2.86) and carbon storage declined (14.6tHa-1). In areas of moderate utilisation diversity and carbon storage were maintained, but the structure of the woodland was affected, with a reduction of Class 1 (Diameter at Breast Height (DBH)<10cm) stems, demonstrating low recruitment which leads to a reduction in sustainability. Tree species richness and abundance demonstrated an intermediate disturbance effect in relation to utilisation, with highest levels at medium utilisation sites.Key miombo woodland species from the subfamily Caesalpinioideae in the two genera Brachystegia and Julbernardia were present in all sites, but the frequency of Brachystegia species declined by 60% from low to high utilisation. The IUCN near-threatened timber species Pterocarpus angolensis, highly protected in Tanzania, was harvested throughout the study site, and the majority of trees recorded were immature (DBH. ≤. 20. cm), suggesting that it is commercially extinct for the foreseeable future.These findings illustrate that in miombo woodlands with low to medium utilisation levels key miombo species are retained, and tree species diversity and carbon storage remains optimal. Sustainable land management plans need to regulate utilisation within miombo landscapes and retain areas of woodland. This will ensure their long term viability, and continue to support the 100. million people who are reliant on miombo woodlands for their goods and services

Effect of post-harvest Cupressus lusitanica slash management on early growth of Pinus patula at Shume, Lushoto, Tanzania

Sustainable forest productivity requires nutrient retention and protection of soil surface to ensure long-term soil fertility. This study was carried out in a second rotation forest plantation in Tanzania to provide insights on post-harvest slash and litter management practices for maintenance or increased productivity of subsequent rotations of forest crops. A randomized complete block design with four replications was used. Management treatments were: (a) control (litter left intact), (b) slash and litter removed, and (c) slash and litter burned. Periodic data were collected on root collar diameter (RCD), breast height diameter (DBH) and height. A final assessment was done at 36 months of age and the control treatmentwas slightly superior compared to other treatments. This could be due to the enhanced physical and chemical properties of soils from slash and litter layers. Although assessment for longer period is required, the preliminary findings revealed that after clear felling and removal of merchantable wood and branches, the remaining slash and litter should beretained on the site to induce better tree growth and maintain the nutrient capital.Keywords: Pinus patula; Cupressus lusitanica; post-harvest; slash and litter management, site productivity

PROSTITUTION, CULTURE AND CHURCH: A STUDY OF GENDER INEQUALITY IN CHALINZE, TANZANIA : A STUDY OF GENDER INEQUALITY IN CHALINZE, TANZANIA

The central problem investigated in this thesis is the role culture and church play in promoting gender inequality and prostitution. In doing this, the study has analyzed field data from Chalinze village in Tanzania. The thesis comprises six chapters. Chapter one has offered a general introduction of the study. It has explained the research problem. It has also delineated the key research questions, as well as the objectives and relevance of the study. The chapter also has discussed the methodological approach and theoretical framework. Chapter two describes the social context in which the problem of prostitution is investigated. This involves reflection on rituals and beliefs among the villagers. The chapter narrates and analyses how the teachings and practices in initiation rituals might be contributing to prostitution in Chalinze community. Chapter three discusses local perspectives on prostitution, and the way local people handle the problem of prostitution. In doing so, the chapter explores how traditional doctors are important figures in the issue of prostitution. Chapter four focuses on views from church leaders about prostitution. In chapter five, different feminist notions on prostitution are discussed and related to Chalinze context. The chapter also discusses viable solutions for dealing with the problem of prostitution in Chalinze. The conclusion in chapter six summarizes what lessons have been learnt