Ecological survey of the native pinewoods of Scotland 1971

In 1971, a comprehensive ecological survey of the native pinewoods of Scotland was carried out by the Institute of Terrestrial Ecology. The survey was initiated as a consequence of growing concern about the status of the pinewood resource. Since the Twentieth Century, this unique habitat is widely recognised, not only by ecologists for its inherent biodiversity, but also by the general public for its cultural and amenity value. The survey, utilising demonstrably repeatable methods, collected information on ground flora, soils, forest structure and also general site information from the major 27 sites of the 35 sites identified as truly native pinewoods in Scotland. The results from the survey prompted the organisation of an International Symposium in 1975, which set the conservation agenda for the Old Caledonian Pinewoods. The data collected during the 1971 survey are now publicly available via the following DOI: http://doi.org/10/7xb (Habitat, vegetation, tree and soil data from Native Pinewoods in Scotland, 1971). Although the data are now 44 years old, the repeatable methods will allow for a resurvey to take place, in order to assess changes in the vegetation, habitats and tree composition in statistically robust manner

Survey of the terrestrial habitats and vegetation of Shetland, 1974 – a framework for long-term ecological monitoring

A survey of the natural environment was undertaken in Shetland in 1974, after concern was expressed that large-scale development from the new oil industry could threaten the natural features of the islands. A framework was constructed by the Institute of Terrestrial Ecology on which to select samples for the survey. The vegetation and habitat data that were collected, along with the sampling framework, have recently been made public via the following doi:10.5285/06fc0b8c-cc4a-4ea8-b4be-f8bd7ee25342 (Terrestrial habitat, vegetation and soil data from Shetland, 1974) and doi:10.5285/f1b3179e-b446-473d-a5fb-4166668da146 (Land Classification of Shetland 1974). In addition to providing valuable information about the state of the natural environment of Shetland, the repeatable and statistically robust methods developed in the survey were used to underpin the Countryside Survey, Great Britain's national long-term integrated environmental monitoring programme. The demonstration of the effectiveness of the methodology indicates that a repeat of the Shetland survey would yield statistics about ecological changes in the islands, such as those arising from the impacts of the oil industry, a range of socio-economic impacts, and perhaps climate change. Currently no such figures are available, although there is much information on the sociological impacts, as well as changes in agriculture

Changes in the vegetation composition of hay meadows between 1993 and 2009 in the Picos de Europa and implications for nature conservation

The Picos de Europa are a range of predominantly Carboniferous Limestone and Sandstone mountains mainly in the Cantabrian region of northern Spain. The highest peaks are precipitous and reach 2600 m. There are complex gradients between Lusitanian, Alpine and Mediterranean environmental zones, as well as variable soil types. In combination with the long history of traditional agricultural management, a wide range of diverse habitats and species is present. The herb-rich hay meadows have long been recognised as having a high nature conservation value but, as elsewhere in European mountains, such grasslands are threatened by changing agricultural practices. Accordingly, in 1993, 92 quadrats were recorded using a restricted list of indicator species from stratified random samples. The authors repeated the sample in 2009. Changed land use had only occurred in approximately 3% of meadows, however, farmyard manure was no longer used, probably because of shortage of labour. Statistical analysis of the vegetation data showed a range of significant changes consistent with the increased use of slurry, as well as re-seeding of some fields. The grass swards had not only become denser, with fewer species present, but there was also a loss of sensitive indicators especially of calcareous conditions and open vegetation. By contrast, competitors had increased and the vegetation had become simpler, with the balance of vegetation types shifting to more nutrient rich conditions. These changes have mainly occurred in the more fertile meadows used for silage. The core of about 35% of herb-rich meadows, mainly cut for hay, has remained relatively stable but the results show that they are at risk if the current trend continues. If management practices that form the core of traditional agriculture are not maintained, one of the most important resources of herb-rich meadows in Europe will be lost

The ecology of British upland landscapes. II. The influence of policy on the current character of the uplands and the potential for change

The paper demonstrates that the British Uplands have been influenced to a great extent by policy - for example, the planting of almost a million hectares of exotic conifers since the Second World War, and the extent of designated areas. Otherwise, climate change transcends policy and is locally important to coastal and high mountain habitats. The different policies affecting the Uplands, such as the Common Agricultural Policy, are described, as are the wide range of designations such as National Parks, which may have a stabilising effect in times of great change. A new trend has started in Scotland in the last 20 years of local initiatives, such as the community ownership of Eigg, however large landowners still dominate. An impact table is presented of the habitats that make up the Uplands and their links to driving forces, with potential changes described that are likely to take place under future policies such as Brexit. Dwarf shrub heath is the habitat affected by many management drivers, whereas habitats such as Inland Rock, are relatively stable but most likely to be affected by climate change

Land cover and vegetation data from an ecological survey of `key habitat' landscapes in England, 1992-1993

Since 1978, a series of national surveys (Countryside Survey, CS) have been carried out by the Centre for Ecology and Hydrology (CEH) (formerly the Institute of Terrestrial Ecology, ITE) to gather data on the natural environment in Great Britain (GB). As the sampling framework for these surveys is not optimised to yield data on rarer or more localised habitats, a survey was commissioned by the then Department of the Environment (DOE, now the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, DEFRA) in the 1990s to carry out additional survey work in English landscapes which contained semi-natural habitats that were perceived to be under threat, or which represented areas of concern to the ministry. The landscapes were lowland heath, chalk and limestone (calcareous) grasslands, coasts and uplands. The information recorded allowed an assessment of the extent and quality of a range of habitats defined during the project, which can now be translated into standard UK broad and priority habitat classes. The survey, known as the "Key Habitat Survey", followed a design which was a series of gridded, stratified, randomly selected 1 km squares taken as representative of each of the four landscape types in England, determined from statistical land classification and geological data ("spatial masks"). The definitions of the landscapes are given in the descriptions of the spatial masks, along with definitions of the surveyed habitats. A total of 213 of the 1 km2 square sample sites were surveyed in the summers of 1992 and 1993, with information being collected on vegetation species, land cover, landscape features and land use, applying standardised repeatable methods. The database contributes additional information and value to the long-term monitoring data gathered by the Countryside Survey and provides a valuable baseline against which future ecological changes may be compared, offering the potential for a repeat survey. The data were analysed and described in a series of contract reports and are summarised in the present paper, showing for example that valuable habitats were restricted in all landscapes, with the majority located within protected areas of countryside according to different UK designations. The dataset provides major potential for analyses, beyond those already published, for example in relation to climate change, agri-environment policies and land management. Precise locations of the plots are restricted, largely for reasons of landowner confidentiality. However, the representative nature of the dataset makes it highly valuable for evaluating the status of ecological elements within the associated landscapes surveyed. Both land cover data and vegetation plot data were collected during the surveys in 1992 and 1993 and are available via the following DOI: https://doi.org/10.5285/7aefe6aa-0760-4b6d-9473-fad8b960abd4. The spatial masks are also available from https://doi.org/10.5285/dc583be3-3649-4df6-b67e-b0f40b4ec895

The ecology of British upland landscapes. I. Composition of landscapes, habitats, vegetation and species

A primary requirement for policy objectives is reliable figures on the composition of any region. Currently there is no comprehensive, definitive set of statistics for the British Uplands, hence the present paper. An overview of the background to the region is first provided, together with some examples of the available figures and a discussion of their limitations. The paper uses a formal structure, with landscapes at the highest level followed by habitats, then vegetation, and finally species, with exact definitions of the categories applied at all levels. The figures are produced from a survey of stratified, random one kilometre squares. The tables give comprehensive figures for Great Britain (GB) as a whole, and also England, Wales and Scotland. The Uplands are shown to cover 38 % of the country. In terms of UK Broad Habitats, Bog is the most common overall (2062 k ha). It is estimated that 41 % of upland vegetation in Britain is grazed by sheep, and Cervus elephus (red deer) are particularly evident in Scotland. Walls (mainly drystone) are the most important linear feature (84 k km) but hedgerows (30 k km) are also widespread. The major vegetation classes are those linked to moorlands and bogs (about 25 %) but those associated with fertile soils are also common (10 %). In terms of species, Potentilla erecta (tormentil) is the most frequent species with four other acid grassland species in the top ten. Calluna vulgaris (ling heather) has the highest cover in Great Britain (14.8 %)

Quantifying the impact of an extreme climate event on species diversity in fragmented temperate forests: the effect of the October 1987 storm on British broadleaved woodlands

1. We report the impact of an extreme weather event, the October 1987 severe storm, on fragmented woodlands in southern Britain. We analysed ecological changes between 1971 and 2002 in 143 200-m2 plots in 10 woodland sites exposed to the storm with an ecologically equivalent sample of 150 plots in 16 non-exposed sites. In both years, understorey species-richness, species composition, soil pH and woody basal area of the tree and shrub canopy were measured. 2. We tested the hypothesis that the storm had deflected sites from the wider national trajectory of an increase in woody basal area and reduced understorey species-richness associated with ageing canopies and declining woodland management. We also expected storm disturbance to amplify the background trend of increasing soil pH, a UK-wide response to reduced atmospheric sulphur deposition. Path analysis was used to quantify indirect effects of storm exposure on understorey species richness via changes in woody basal area and soil pH. 3. By 2002, storm exposure was estimated to have increased mean species richness per 200 m2 by 32%. Woody basal area changes were highly variable and did not significantly differ with storm exposure. 4. Increasing soil pH was associated with a 7% increase in richness. There was no evidence that soil pH increased more as a function of storm exposure. Changes in species richness and basal area were negatively correlated: a 3.4% decrease in richness occurred for every 0.1-m2 increase in woody basal area per plot. 5. Despite all sites substantially exceeding the empirical critical load for nitrogen deposition, there was no evidence that in the 15 years since the storm, disturbance had triggered a eutrophication effect associated with dominance of gaps by nitrophilous species. 6. Synthesis: Although the impacts of the 1987 storm were spatially variable in terms of impacts on woody basal area, the storm had a positive effect on understorey species richness. There was no evidence that disturbance had increased dominance of gaps by invasive species. This could change if recovery from acidification results in a soil pH regime associated with greater macronutrient availability

The landscape ecological impact of afforestation on the British uplands and some initiatives to restore native woodland cover

The majority of forest cover in the British Uplands had been lost by the beginning of the Nineteenth Century, because of felling followed by overgrazing by sheep and deer. The situation remained unchanged until a government policy of afforestation, mainly by exotic conifers, after the First World War up to the present day. This paper analyses the distribution of these predominantly coniferous plantations, and shows how they occupy specific parts of upland landscapes in different zones throughout Britain. Whilst some landscapes are dominated by these new forests, elsewhere the blocks of trees are more localised. Although these forests virtually eliminate native ground vegetation, except in rides and unplanted land, the major negative impacts are at the landscape level. For example, drainage systems are altered and ancient cultural landscape patterns are destroyed. These impacts are summarised and possible ways of amelioration are discussed. By contrast, in recent years, a series of projects have been set up to restore native forest cover, as opposed to the extensive plantations of exotic species. Accordingly, the paper then provides three examples of such initiatives designed to restore native forests to otherwise bare landscapes, as well as setting them into a policy context. Whilst such projects cover a limited proportion of the British Uplands they nevertheless restore forest to landscapes at a local level

Ecological landscape elements: long-term monitoring in Great Britain, the Countryside Survey 1978-2007 and beyond

The Countryside Survey (CS) of Great Britain (GB) provides a unique and statistically robust series of datasets, consisting of an extensive set of repeated ecological measurements at a national scale, covering a time span of 29 years. CS was first undertaken in 1978 to provide a baseline for ecological and land use change monitoring in the rural environment of GB, following a stratified random design, based on 1 km squares. Originally, eight random 1 km squares were drawn from each of 32 environmental classes, thus comprising 256 sample squares in the 1978 survey. The number of these sites increased to 382 in 1984, 506 in 1990, 569 in 1998 and 591 in 2007. Detailed information regarding vegetation types and land use was mapped in all five surveys, allowing reporting by defined standard habitat classifications. Additionally, point and linear landscape features (such as trees and hedgerows) are available from all surveys after 1978. From these stratified, randomly located sample squares, information can be converted into national estimates, with associated error terms. Other data, relating to soils, freshwater and vegetation, were also sampled on analogous dates. However, the present paper describes only the surveys of landscape features and habitats. The resulting datasets provide a unique, comprehensive, quantitative ecological coverage of extent and change in these features in GB. Basic results are presented and their implications discussed. However, much opportunity for further analyses remains. Data from each of the survey years are available via the following DOIs: Landscape area data 1978: https://doi.org/10.5285/86c017ba-dc62-46f0-ad13-c862bf31740e, 1984: https://doi.org/10.5285/b656bb43-448d-4b2c-aade-7993aa243ea3, 1990: https://doi.org/10.5285/94f664e5-10f2-4655-bfe6-44d745f5dca7, 1998: https://doi.org/10.5285/1e050028-5c55-42f4-a0ea-c895d827b824, and 2007: https://doi.org/10.5285/bf189c57-61eb-4339-a7b3-d2e81fdde28d; Landscape linear feature data 1984: https://doi.org/10.5285/a3f5665c-94b2-4c46-909e-a98be97857e5, 1990: https://doi.org/10.5285/311daad4-bc8c-485a-bc8a-e0d054889219, 1998: https://doi.org/10.5285/8aaf6f8c-c245-46bb-8a2a-f0db012b2643 and 2007: https://doi.org/10.5285/e1d31245-4c0a-4dee-b36c-b23f1a697f88, Landscape point feature data 1984: https://doi.org/10.5285/124b872e-036e-4dd3-8316-476b5f42c16e, 1990: https://doi.org/10.5285/1481bc63-80d7-4d18-bcba-8804aa0a9e1b, 1998: https://doi.org/10.5285/ed10944f-40c8-4913-b3f5-13c8e844e153 and 2007: https://doi.org/10.5285/55dc5fd7-d3f7-4440-b8a7-7187f8b0550b

How much would it cost to monitor farmland biodiversity in Europe?

International audienceTo evaluate progress on political biodiversity objectives, biodiversity monitoring provides information on whether intended results are being achieved. Despite scientific proof that monitoring and evaluation increase the (cost) efficiency of policy measures, cost estimates for monitoring schemes are seldom available, hampering their inclusion in policy programme budgets. Empirical data collected from 12 case studies across Europe were used in a power analysis to estimate the number of farms that would need to be sampled per major farm type to detect changes in species richness over time for four taxa (vascular plants, earthworms, spiders and bees). A sampling design was developed to allocate spatially, across Europe, the farms that should be sampled. Cost estimates are provided for nine monitoring scenarios with differing robustness for detecting temporal changes in species numbers. These cost estimates are compared with the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) budget (2014-2020) to determine the budgetallocation required for the proposed farmland biodiversity monitoring. Results show that the bee indicator requires the highest number of farms to be sampled and the vascular plant indicator the lowest. The costs for the nine farmland biodiversity monitoring scenarios corresponded to 001%-074% of the total CAP budget and to 004%-248% of the CAP budget specifically allocated to environmental targets.Synthesis and applications. The results of the cost scenarios demonstrate that, based on the taxa and methods used in this study, a Europe-wide farmland biodiversity monitoring scheme would require a modest share of the Common Agricultural Policy budget. The monitoring scenarios are flexible and can be adapted or complemented with alternate data collection options (e.g. at national scale or voluntary efforts), data mobilization, data integration or modelling efforts. Editor's Choic