La influencia de los grupos de interés en el proceso normativo del International Accounting Standards Board: el caso de la NIF para pymes

Desde la segunda mitad del siglo XX la investigación contable ha evolucionado hacia unos modelos basados en el paradigma de utilidad que ha promovido el auge de la contrastación empírica de cuatro grandes cuestiones sobre la información financiera: ¿(i) determinación de sus objetivos; (ii) diseño de los sistemas de captación y producción de información necesarios para alcanzar tales objetivos; (iii) comunicación de información a los usuarios; y (iv) evaluación de su utilidad¿ (Tua, 1991: 28). Uno de los motivos que más ha contribuido al desarrollo de dicho paradigma ha sido el proceso de apertura de la regulación contable a las partes interesadas, momento a partir del cual la investigación comenzó a preocuparse, especialmente desde el impulso dado por la teoría de la agencia (Jensen y Meekling, 1976), por la influencia de los diferentes intereses particulares sobre el diseño de las normas contables (Tua, 1991: 35). La información financiera se utiliza para reducir la incertidumbre en las decisiones de asignación de recursos entre el principal, aportante de fondos, y el agente, destinatario de los mismos. La reducción de la incertidumbre facilita que los suministradores de fondos confíen en determinados proyectos empresariales y que además las primas de riesgo exigidas a los mismos sean más ajustadas por lo que el coste de financiación será menor para las empresas. Por tal motivo, los preparadores (agentes) comunican a los inversores, a título de propietarios o de acreedores, (principales) cuál es la posición financiera, cuál el desempeño y cuáles son los movimientos de efectivo durante el ejercicio con la finalidad de que estos últimos puedan estimar de manera más fiable los flujos de efectivo futuros con los que verán compensada su inversión así como el retorno de la misma. Tanto los preparadores como los usuarios están interesados en que la información financiera sea útil para tomar decisiones y sea posible elaborarla a un coste razonable; en definitiva, ambas partes pretenden reducir los costes de transacción que surgen en la relación de agencia. Este trabajo se enmarca dentro de dicha línea de investigación y está centrado en el análisis de la influencia (lobbying por su denominación en inglés) de los diferentes agentes económicos sobre el proceso normativo contable internacional, mediante la contrastación de los comentarios enviados por las partes interesadas al International Accounting Standards Board (IASB) durante el proceso normativo. Después de una primera etapa en la que se confió la legitimidad de su normativa únicamente en su competencia técnica, el IASB ha tratado de fundamentar dicha legitimación a través de su proceso público de consulta o due process (Richardson y Eberlein, 2011). Burlaud y Colasse (2011) añaden que el IASB ha intentado compensar su falta de legitimidad política, derivada de su carácter privado, con el fortalecimiento de su legitimidad procedimental, a través del due process, y substancial, a través de la creación de un marco conceptual. Según Kenny y Larson (1993), esta búsqueda de legitimidad es coherente con la teoría institucional de Meyer y Rowen (1977), según la cual organizaciones como el IASB deben ser aceptadas por los agentes interesados para poder sobrevivir, motivo por el que constantemente interactúan con su entorno para conocer y tratar de adaptarse a sus necesidades. En este sentido, algunos autores como Leuz et al. (2004) o Durocher y Fortin (2011) aseguran que la legitimidad de las normas depende de la participación de quienes se ven afectados por su aplicación, por lo que la eficacia del fenómeno lobbying sobre el regulador contable podría condicionar la calidad de las normas obtenidas. La investigación previa ha centrado el análisis de dicha participación pública en la existencia de unos efectos económicos de las normas contables suficientemente significativos como para modificar la conducta de los agentes económicos afectados y, por lo tanto, inducir a la participación en el proceso regulatorio. En general, basándonos en Sutton (1984) se entienden por lobbying todas las acciones de las partes interesadas para influir en el proceso regulatorio con el objetivo de defender los intereses del sujeto o colectivo al que representa. Zeff (2008: 207) distingue entre el lobbying y el political lobbying

Main determinants of efficiency and implications on banking concentration in the European Union

AbstractThis study aims to measure the main determinants influencing bank efficiency. We suggest that the bank efficiency ratio, obtained from the income statement, is positively related to the size of a bank in terms of total assets. However, we believe that such a relationship cannot be maintained for banks over a certain size. By the use of the regression analysis method, we analyze the link between bank efficiency and bank size, using a sample of 3952 banks in the European Union. Our results show that the efficiency ratio stops improving for banks with total assets over $25 billion. Previous literature, using different analysis techniques, does not reach an agreement on this point. Furthermore, our study identifies further variables which negatively affect the efficiency of banks, such as competition and lending diversification, or affect them positively, such as the wholesale funding ratio and income diversification. Our findings imply the need for different bank policies depending on total assets, in order to limit the size and activities of banks

La contabilización de las retribuciones variables: una cuestión transversal sujeta a debate

Contingent clauses respond to the effects of information asymmetries among contracting agents. Expressions of these asymmetries are found both ex ante and ex post. The adverse selection effect represents the main ex ante challenge. Contingent clauses improve price formation process and optimize contracts. Regarding ex post effects, contingent clauses deal with moral hazard risk. For this, payments become dependent on the behaviour of the agents after contracting as they affect the controlled resource. International accounting standards address this issue through two different approaches that do not seem to be consistent among each other. This paper deepens on the underlying concepts and proposes a consistent approach for a broad type of transactions where contingent compensations are frequent.Las cláusulas contingentes dan respuesta a los problemas derivados de la asimetría de información entre las partes contratantes. Estos problemas se manifiestan ex ante y ex post. El principal problema ex ante es la selección adversa. Las cláusulas contingentes permiten facilitar el ajuste de precios y optimizar la contratación. Los efectos ex post están relacionados con el riesgo moral y con ellos la finalidad de la cláusula contingente es acomodar los pagos a la conducta posterior de las partes contratantes en la medida en que afecta al desarrollo del recurso contratado. La normativa contable internacional aborda la cuestión de los pagos variables con enfoques que a priori no son consistentes entre sí. Este trabajo profundiza en los conceptos subyacentes y aporta un enfoque consistente para una amplia y variada gama de transacciones donde se dan cita compensaciones contingentes

Long-term cost-utility analysis of remote monitoring of older patients with pacemakers: the PONIENTE study

Background: Cost-effectiveness studies on pacemakers have increased in the last years. However the number of long-term cost-utility studies is limited. The objective of this study was to perform a cost-utility analysis comparing remote monitoring (RM) versus conventional monitoring (CM) in hospital of older patients with pacemakers, 5 years after implant. Methods: Under a controlled, not randomized, nor masked clinical trial, 83 patients with pacemakers were initially selected. After five years of follow-up, a total of 55 patients (CM = 34; RM = 21) completed the study. A cost-utility analysis of RM in terms of costs per gained quality-adjusted life years (QALYs) was conducted. The costs from the Public Health System (PHS) as well as patients and their relatives were taken into account for the study. The robustness of the results was verified by the probabilistic analyses through Monte-Carlo simulations. Results: After a five-year follow-up period, total costs were lower in the RM group by 23.02% than in the CM group (€274.52 versus €356.62; p = 0.033) because of a cost saving from patients’ perspective (€59.05 versus €102.98; p = 0.002). However, the reduction of in-hospital visits derived from RM exhibited insignificant impact on the costs from the PHS perspective, with a cost saving of 15.04% (€215.48 vs. €253.64; p = 0.144). Costs/QALYs obtained by the RM group were higher as compared to the CM group, although there were no significant differences. The incremental cost-effectiveness ratio of CM in comparison to RM became positive (€301.16). Conclusions: This study confirms RM of older patients with pacemakers appears still as a cost-utility alternative to CM in hospital after 5 years of follow-up. Trial registration: ClinicalTrials.gov: (Identifier: NCT02234245). Registered 09 September 2014 - Prospectively registered.This study has been funded by Instituto de Salud Carlos III through the project "No. PI17/02056" (Co-funded by European Regional Development Fund/European Social Fund "A way to make Europe"/"Investing in your future") and by the General Secretariat for Research, Development and Innovation, Regional Government of Andalusia (Spain), with Project Reference No. PI/0256/2017, under the research call "Development and Innovation Projects in the Field of Biomedicine and Health Sciences". The funders had no role in the study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript. The authors performed all research related activities independently

A non-randomized clinical trial to examine patients' experiences and communication during telemonitoring of pacemakers after five years follow-up

Patients with pacemakers need regular follow-ups which are demanding. Telemonitoring for pacemaker can provide a new opportunity to avoid follow-up visits. On the other hand, inperson visits could help patients with pacemakers to cope better with the anxiety linked to their condition and maintain better communication with their doctors than simple remote control of their device status. Therefore, our objective was to analyze the experiences and communication comparing telemonitoring (TM) versus conventional monitoring (CM) of patients with pacemakers. A single-center, controlled, non-randomized, non-blinded clinical trial was designed. Data were collected five years after implantation in a cohort of 89 consecutive patients assigned to two different groups: TM and CM. The ‘Generic Short Patient Experiences Questionnaire’ (GS-PEQ) was used to assess patients’ experiences, and the Healthcare Communication Questionnaire (HCCQ) was used to measure the communication of patients with healthcare professionals. Additionally, an ad-hoc survey including items from the ‘Telehealth Patient Satisfaction Survey’ and a ‘costs survey’ was used. After five years, 55 patients completed the study (TM = 21; CM = 34). Participants’ mean (±SD) age was 81 (±6.47), and 31% were females. No differences in baseline characteristics between groups were found. The comparative analyses TM versus CM showed some significant differences. According to GS-PEQ, TM users received adequate information about their diagnosis or afflictions (p = .035) and the treatment was better adapted to their situation (p = .009). Both groups reported negative experiences regarding their involvement in their treatment decisions, the waiting time before admission, and perceived a low-benefit. According to HCCQ, the TM group experienced poorer consultation management by the healthcare provider (p = .041). Participants reported positive overall communication experiences. The study provides insights into the experiences and communication in PM monitoring services as well as specific areas where users reported negative experiences such as the consultation management by clinicians.Grant numbers awarded to each author: PI17/02056 – The full name of each funder: instituto de Salud Carlos II

Teledermatology versus Face-to-Face Dermatology: An Analysis of Cost-Effectiveness from Eight Studies from Europe and the United States

(1) Background: The aim of this systematic review was to compare the cost-effectiveness of two follow-up methods (face-to-face and telemedicine) used in dermatology in the last ten years. (2) Methods: A search for articles that included economic analyses was conducted in August 2021 in the databases PubMed, Medline, Scielo and Scopus using the following keywords: “Cost–Benefit Analysis”, “Dermatology”, “Telemedicine”, “Primary Health Care”, as well as other search terms and following the PICOS eligibility criteria. (3) Results: Three clinical trials and five observational studies were analyzed, providing information for approximately 16,539 patients (including four cost-minimization or saving analyses, three cost-effectiveness analyses, and one cost–utility analysis) in Europe and the United States. They describe the follow-up procedures in each of the cases and measure and analyze the direct and indirect costs and effectiveness. All the articles indicate that teledermatology lowers costs and proves satisfactory to both patients and professionals. (4) Conclusions: Although it has been found that follow-up via teledermatology can be more efficient than traditional hospital follow-up, more work is needed to establish evaluation protocols and procedures that measure key variables more equally and demonstrate the quality of the evidence of said studies

Long-Term Socioeconomic Impact of Informal Care Provided to Patients with Pacemakers: Remote vs. Conventional Monitoring

The impact of informal care immediately after pacemaker (PM) implantation has been well established; however, not much is known about its long-term effects. The present study compared personal characteristics, associated problems, workloads, time, and costs related to informal care provided to patients with PM under remote monitoring (RM) vs. conventional monitoring (CM) in the hospital, five years after implantation. The PONIENTE study was a controlled, non-randomized or masked clinical trial conducted with information obtained from the perspective of informal caregivers. Data were collected at 12 and 60 months after PM implantation. The patients in the study were assigned to two different groups: remote monitoring (RM) and conventional monitoring (CM). The “Disability, personal autonomy, and dependency situations survey” (EDAD) was administered to collect information on sociodemographic characteristics, time, care difficulties, health status, professional aspects, and impact on economic, family, or leisure aspects of the main caregivers providing care to patients with pacemakers. After five years, 55 patients completed the study (RM = 21; CM = 34). The average age was 63.14 years (SD = 14.90), 96% of them were women, and the most predominant marital status was married (72%). Informal caregivers lived in the homes of the patients in 70% of cases, and 88% indicated that they had to provide care six to seven days a week. The average cost per patient during the monitoring period studied was 13.17% lower in the RM group than in the CM group, and these differences were not statistically significant (p = 0.35). This study found similar results in the two groups under study with respect to sociodemographic characteristics, workload, time, and problems associated with health, leisure and family members. The costs associated with care were higher in the CM group; however, these differences were not statistically significant

Design and baseline characteristics of the finerenone in reducing cardiovascular mortality and morbidity in diabetic kidney disease trial

Background: Among people with diabetes, those with kidney disease have exceptionally high rates of cardiovascular (CV) morbidity and mortality and progression of their underlying kidney disease. Finerenone is a novel, nonsteroidal, selective mineralocorticoid receptor antagonist that has shown to reduce albuminuria in type 2 diabetes (T2D) patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD) while revealing only a low risk of hyperkalemia. However, the effect of finerenone on CV and renal outcomes has not yet been investigated in long-term trials. Patients and Methods: The Finerenone in Reducing CV Mortality and Morbidity in Diabetic Kidney Disease (FIGARO-DKD) trial aims to assess the efficacy and safety of finerenone compared to placebo at reducing clinically important CV and renal outcomes in T2D patients with CKD. FIGARO-DKD is a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel-group, event-driven trial running in 47 countries with an expected duration of approximately 6 years. FIGARO-DKD randomized 7,437 patients with an estimated glomerular filtration rate >= 25 mL/min/1.73 m(2) and albuminuria (urinary albumin-to-creatinine ratio >= 30 to <= 5,000 mg/g). The study has at least 90% power to detect a 20% reduction in the risk of the primary outcome (overall two-sided significance level alpha = 0.05), the composite of time to first occurrence of CV death, nonfatal myocardial infarction, nonfatal stroke, or hospitalization for heart failure. Conclusions: FIGARO-DKD will determine whether an optimally treated cohort of T2D patients with CKD at high risk of CV and renal events will experience cardiorenal benefits with the addition of finerenone to their treatment regimen. Trial Registration: EudraCT number: 2015-000950-39; ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT02545049