Late Cenozoic metamorphic evolution and exhumation of Taiwan

The Taiwan mountain belt is composed of a Cenozoic slate belt (Hsuehshan Range units, HR, and Backbone Slates, BS) and of accreted polymetamorphic basement rocks (Tananao Complex, TC). Ongoing crustal shortening has resulted from the collision between the Chinese continental margin and the Luzon volcanic arc, which initiated ~6.5 Ma ago. The grade and age of metamorphism and exhumation are a key record of the development of the orogenic wedge. Because the Taiwan mountain belt is mostly composed by accreted sediments lacking metamorphic index minerals, quantitative constraints on metamorphism are sparse. By contrast, these rocks are rich in carbonaceaous material (CM) and are therefore particularly appropriate for RSCM (Raman Spectroscopy of CM) thermometry. We apply this technique in addition to (U-Th)/He thermochronology on detrital zircons to assess peak metamorphic temperatures (T) and the late exhumational history respectively, along different transects in central and southern Taiwan. In the case of the HR units, we find evidence for high metamorphic T of at least 340°–350°C and locally up to 475°C, and for relative rapid exhumation with zircon (U-Th)/He ages in the range of 1.5–2 Ma. Farther east, the BS were only slightly metamorphosed (T < 330 °C), and zircons are not reset for (U-Th)/He. From the eastern BS to the inner TC schists, T gradually increases from ~350°C up to ~500°C following an inverted metamorphic gradient. Available geochronological constraints and the continuous thermal gradient from the BS to the basement rocks of the TC suggest that the high RSCM T of the TC were most probably acquired during the last orogeny, and were not inherited from a previous thermal event. Zircons yield (U-Th)/He ages of ~0.5–1.2 Ma. Peak metamorphic T and the timing of exhumation do not show along-strike variations over the TC in the studied area. In contrast, exhumation is laterally diachronous and decreases southward in the case of the HR units. In particular, our data imply that the HR units have been exhumed by a minimum of 15 km over the last few Ma. In the case of the BS, they show far less cumulated exhumation and much slower cooling rates. We propose that most of the deformation and exhumation of the Taiwan mountain belt is sustained through two underplating windows located beneath the Hsuehshan Range and the TC. Our data show significant departures from the predictions of the prevailing model in Taiwan, which assumes a homogeneous critical wedge with dominant frontal accretion. Our study sheds new light on how the mountain belt has grown as a possible result of underplating mostly

Diachronous evolution of the alpine continental subduction wedge: evidence from P-T estimates in the Briançonnais Zone houillère (France - Western Alps).

International audienceThe study of continental subduction processes requires detailed Pressure Temperature (P-T) paths to understand the kinematic of burial and exhumation of continental units. In the French Western Alps, the Briançonnais zone is a remnant of the continental subduction wedge. P-T conditions have been estimated in its most internal parts, but there is a lack of data in the western part, known as the "Zone houillère". This Briançonnais Zone houillère is classically divided into two sub-units: the upper and lower Houiller units. This study focuses on both of these in the Clarée valley, north of Briançon. In this low-grade metamorphic terrain, estimation of P-T history is complicated because there are few adapted methods and these rocks have a poor metamorphic mineralogical content, including detrital metamorphic minerals inherited from their hercynian history. Therefore, to acquire accurate P-T estimates a multi-method approach is required, involving qualitative and quantitative Raman study of Carbonaceous Material (RSCM), chemical analysis from quantified X-ray maps and thermodynamic modelling of chlorites and K-white micas. Such multi-approach P-T estimates on a sandstone sample allow distinguishing hercynian peak metamorphic conditions of 371 ± 26°C and 3.5 ± 1.4 kbar and alpine peak metamorphic conditions of 275 ± 23°C and 5.9 ± 1.7 kbar. These results are consistent with our RSCM and Tmax estimates. Raman study conducted on organic-rich schist samples shows an eastward increase of the alpine Tmax in the upper Houiller unit, from 280 to 300°C across the Briançonnais Zone houillère. In contrast, carbonaceous material included in detrital grains of muscovite in the sandstone exhibits higher temperatures. This hercynian Tmax is estimated using thermodynamic modelling at 376 ± 50°C. According to these results and previous work in more internal parts of the Briançonnais zone, a geodynamic reconstruction is proposed, which is characterized by a diachronous evolution of the Briançonnais zone involved in alpine continental subduction at different times. The geothermal gradient in the Briançonnais zone changes from 8°C/km during early continental subduction, to 40°C/km during the collisional event at about 35-30 Ma. The intermediate gradient of 15°C/km estimated in the Briançonnais Zone houillère suggests that this unit was buried later, than the more internal Briançonnais units, after 40 Ma

Thermal Evolution of the Permo−Triassic Karakaya Subduction-accretion Complex Between the Biga Peninsula and the Tokat Massif (Anatolia)

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Assimilation, Hydrothermal Alteration and Graphite Mineralization in the Borrowdale Deposit (UK)

The volcanic-hosted graphite deposit at Borrowdale was formed through precipitation from C-O-H fluids. The G13C data indicate that carbon was incorporated into the mineralizing fluids by assimilation of carbonaceous metapelites of the Skiddaw Group by andesite magmas of the Borrowdale Volcanic Group. The graphite mineralization occurred as the fluids migrated upwards through normal conjugate fractures forming the main subvertical pipe-like bodies. The mineralizing fluids evolved from CO2-CH4-H2O mixtures (XCO2=0.6-0.8) to CH4-H2O mixtures. Coevally with graphite deposition, the andesite and dioritic wall rocks adjacent to the veins were intensely hydrothermally altered to a propylitic assemblage. The initial graphite precipitation was probably triggered by the earliest hydration reactions in the volcanic host rocks. During the main mineralization stage, graphite precipitated along the pipe-like bodies due to CO2 -> C+O2. This agrees with the isotopic data which indicate that the first graphite morphologies crystallizing from the fluid (cryptocrystalline aggregates) are isotopically lighter than those crystallizing later (flakes). Late chlorite-graphite veins were formed from CH4-enriched fluids following the reaction CH4 + O2 -> C+ 2H2O, producing the successive precipitation of isotopically lighter graphite morphologies. Thus, as mineralization proceeded, water-generating reactions were involved in graphite precipitation, further favouring the propylitic alteration

Assimilation, Hydrothermal Alteration and Graphite Mineralization in the Borrowdale Deposit (UK)

The volcanic-hosted graphite deposit at Borrowdale was formed through precipitation from C-O-H fluids. The G13C data indicate that carbon was incorporated into the mineralizing fluids by assimilation of carbonaceous metapelites of the Skiddaw Group by andesite magmas of the Borrowdale Volcanic Group. The graphite mineralization occurred as the fluids migrated upwards through normal conjugate fractures forming the main subvertical pipe-like bodies. The mineralizing fluids evolved from CO2-CH4-H2O mixtures (XCO2=0.6-0.8) to CH4-H2O mixtures. Coevally with graphite deposition, the andesite and dioritic wall rocks adjacent to the veins were intensely hydrothermally altered to a propylitic assemblage. The initial graphite precipitation was probably triggered by the earliest hydration reactions in the volcanic host rocks. During the main mineralization stage, graphite precipitated along the pipe-like bodies due to CO2 -> C+O2. This agrees with the isotopic data which indicate that the first graphite morphologies crystallizing from the fluid (cryptocrystalline aggregates) are isotopically lighter than those crystallizing later (flakes). Late chlorite-graphite veins were formed from CH4-enriched fluids following the reaction CH4 + O2 -> C+ 2H2O, producing the successive precipitation of isotopically lighter graphite morphologies. Thus, as mineralization proceeded, water-generating reactions were involved in graphite precipitation, further favouring the propylitic alteration

Conditions of graphite precipitation in the volcanic-hosted deposits at Borrowdale (Cumbria, UK)

Depto. de Mineralogía y PetrologíaFac. de Ciencias GeológicasTRUEpu

The graphite deposit at Borrowdale (UK): A catastrophic mineralizing event associated with Ordovician magmatism

The volcanic-hosted graphite deposit at Borrowdale in Cumbria, UK, was formed through precipitation from C–O–H fluids. The δ13C data indicate that carbon was incorporated into the mineralizing fluids by assimilation of carbonaceous metapelites of the Skiddaw Group by andesite magmas of the Borrowdale Volcanic Group. The graphite mineralization occurred as the fluids migrated upwards through normal conjugate fractures forming the main subvertical pipe-like bodies. The mineralizing fluids evolved from CO2–CH4–H2O mixtures (XCO2 = 0.6–0.8) to CH4–H2O mixtures. Coevally with graphite deposition, the andesite and dioritic wall rocks adjacent to the veins were intensely hydrothermally altered to a propylitic assemblage. The initial graphite precipitation was probably triggered by the earliest hydration reactions in the volcanic host rocks. During the main mineralization stage, graphite precipitated along the pipe-like bodies due to CO2 → C + O2. This agrees with the isotopic data which indicate that the first graphite morphologies crystallizing from the fluid (cryptocrystalline aggregates) are isotopically lighter than those crystallizing later (flakes). Late chlorite–graphite veins were formed from CH4-enriched fluids following the reaction CH4+O2 → C + 2H2O, producing the successive precipitation of isotopically lighter graphite morphologies. Thus, as mineralization proceeded, water-generating reactions were involved in graphite precipitation, further favouring the propylitic alteration. The structural features of the pipe-like mineralized bodies as well as the isotopic homogeneity of graphite suggest that the mineralization occurred in a very short period of time

Mountain building in Taiwan: A thermokinematic model

The Taiwan mountain belt is classically viewed as a case example of a critical wedge growing essentially by frontal accretion and therefore submitted to distributed shortening. However, a number of observations call for a significant contribution of underplating to the growth of the orogenic wedge. We propose here a new thermokinematic model of the Taiwan mountain belt reconciling existing kinematic, thermometric and thermochronological constraints. In this model, shortening across the orogen is absorbed by slip on the most frontal faults of the foothills. Crustal thickening and exhumation are sustained by underplating beneath the easternmost portion of the wedge (Tananao Complex, TC), where the uplift rate is estimated to ~6.3 mm a^(−1), and beneath the westernmost internal region of the orogen (Hsueshan Range units, HR), where the uplift rate is estimated to ~4.2 mm a^(−1). Our model suggests that the TC units experienced a synchronous evolution along strike despite the southward propagation of the collision. It also indicates that they have reached a steady state in terms of cooling ages but not in terms of peak metamorphic temperatures. Exhumation of the HR units increases northward but has not yet reached an exhumational steady state. Presently, frontal accretion accounts for less than ~10% of the incoming flux of material into the orogen, although there is indication that it was contributing substantially more (~80%) before 4 Ma. The incoming flux of material accreted beneath the TC significantly increased 1.5 Ma ago. Our results also suggest that the flux of material accreted to the orogen corresponds to the top ~7 km of the upper crust of the underthrust Chinese margin. This indicates that a significant amount (~76%) of the underthrust material has been subducted into the mantle, probably because of the increase in density associated with metamorphism. We also show that the density distribution resulting from metamorphism within the orogenic wedge explains well the topography and the gravity field. By combining available geological data on the thermal and kinematic evolution of the wedge, our study sheds new light onto mountain building processes in Taiwan and allows for reappraising the initial structural architecture of the passive margin