Time delay occultation data of the Helios spacecraft for probing the electron density distribution in the solar corona

S-band time delay measurements were collected from the spacecraft Helios A and B during three solar occultations in 1975/76 within heliocentric distances of about 3 and 215 earth radius in terms of range, Doppler frequency shift, and electron content. Characteristic features of measurement and data processing are described. Typical data sets are discussed to probe the electron density distribution near the sun (west and east limb as well) including the outer and extended corona. Steady-state and dynamical aspects of the solar corona are presented and compared with earth-bound-K-coronagraph measurements. Using a weighted least squares estimation, parameters of an average coronal electron density profile are derived in a preliminary analysis to yield electron densities at r = 3, 65, 215 earth radius. Transient phenomena are discussed and a velocity of propagation v is nearly equal to 900 km/s is determined for plasma ejecta from a solar flare observed during an extraordinary set of Helios B electron content measurements

[Letter] Zero emission targets as long-term global goals for climate protection

Recently, assessments have robustly linked stabilization of global-mean temperature rise to the necessity of limiting the total amount of emitted carbon-dioxide (CO2). Halting global warming thus requires virtually zero annual CO2 emissions at some point. Policymakers have now incorporated this concept in the negotiating text for a new global climate agreement, but confusion remains about concepts like carbon neutrality, climate neutrality, full decarbonization, and net zero carbon or net zero greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Here we clarify these concepts, discuss their appropriateness to serve as a long-term global benchmark for achieving temperature targets, and provide a detailed quantification. We find that with current pledges and for a likely (>66%) chance of staying below 2 °C, the scenario literature suggests net zero CO2 emissions between 2060 and 2070, with net negative CO2 emissions thereafter. Because of residual non-CO2 emissions, net zero is always reached later for total GHG emissions than for CO2. Net zero emissions targets are a useful focal point for policy, linking a global temperature target and socio-economic pathways to a necessary long-term limit on cumulative CO2 emissions

Marginalization of end-use technologies in energy innovation for climate protection

Mitigating climate change requires directed innovation efforts to develop and deploy energy technologies. Innovation activities are directed towards the outcome of climate protection by public institutions, policies and resources that in turn shape market behaviour. We analyse diverse indicators of activity throughout the innovation system to assess these efforts. We find efficient end-use technologies contribute large potential emission reductions and provide higher social returns on investment than energy-supply technologies. Yet public institutions, policies and financial resources pervasively privilege energy-supply technologies. Directed innovation efforts are strikingly misaligned with the needs of an emissions-constrained world. Significantly greater effort is needed to develop the full potential of efficient end-use technologies

Social acceptance of renewable energy: Some examples from Europe and Developing Africa

Current energy systems are in most instances not fully working sustainably. The provision and use of energy only consider limited resources, risk potential or financial constraints on a limited scale. Furthermore, the knowledge and benefits are only available for a minor group of the population or are outright neglected. The availability of different resources for energy purposes determines economic development, as well as the status of the society and the environment. The access to energy grids has an impact on socio-economic living standards of communities. This not fully developed system is causing climate change with all its related outcomes. This investigation takes into consideration different views on renewable energy systems — such as international discussions about biomass use for energy production, “fuel versus food”, biogas use — and attempts to compare major prospects of social acceptance of renewable energy in Europe and Africa. Can all obstacles to the use of renewable energy be so profound that the overall strategy of reducing anthropogenic causes of climate change be seriously affected

NEW DEVELOPMENTS IN GASEOUS FERRITIC NITROCARBURISING BY USING HYDROCARBON GASES

Industrial gaseous ferritic nitrocarburising processes, or shortly named „fnc“, use mainly carbon dioxide or endothermic gas as the carbon providing gas in addition to ammonia gas. Both processes have positive and negative aspects and produce somewhat different layer structures. The carbon dioxide fnc process depicts a faster layer growth yielding a thicker and more porous nitride layer, whereas the endothermic fnc process produces a nitride layer with higher carbon content and a larger proportion of the å-nitride phase. A newer variant of a fnc process uses hydrocarbons, and preferably propane or natural gas, as carbon providing gas replacing partly or totally carbon dioxide gas. This newer process uses different single or double step cycles combining the advantages of the enhanced nitrogen transfer as created by the carbon dioxide variant with the increased carbon transfer rate of the endothermic gas. This results in faster layer growth producing nitride layers with higher carbon content and a larger proportion of the å-phase. This is advantageous with respect to wear resistance of the nitrocarburised components. In addition, it improves furnace productivity

The german energy transition: Societal experiment and social learning process

[No abstract available

Multiple carbon accounting to support just and effective climate policies

Negotiating reductions in greenhouse gas emission involves the allocation of emissions and of emission reductions to specific agents, and notably, within the current UN framework, to associated countries. As production takes place in supply chains,increasingly extending over several countries, there are various options available in which emissions originating from one and the same activity may be attributed to different agents along the supply chain and thus to different countries. In this way, several distinct types of national carbon accounts can be constructed. We argue that these accounts will typically differ in the information they provide to individual countries on the effects their actions have on global emissions; and they may also, to varying degrees, prove useful in supporting the pursuit of an effective and just climate policy. None of the accounting systems, however, prove 'best' in achieving these aims under real-world circumstances; we thus suggest compiling reliable data to aid in the consistent calculation of multiple carbon accounts on a global level

The flexible heat treatment of automotive components in a novel type of pusher furnace

The typical heat treatment processes needed in the automotive industry are hardening and tempering, casehardening,nitrocarburising and various types of annealing. Usually, different types of specialised furnacesare applied to the various processes with each furnace type possessing very little flexibility. An exception isthe sealed quench furnaces, or also called multi-purpose furnaces, which can be used for various heattreatment processes. Their disadvantage is a certain limitation with respect to high productivity in largeseries component production. A continuous pusher furnace e.g. is better adapt for economical large seriesmanufacturing, however, is designed only for single purpose usage. This all has changed with the novelconcept of a pusher furnace, which allows large series production of automotive components and, at thesame time, a switch-over from the hardening and tempering process to case-hardening, or isothermalannealing, or soft annealing, or spheroidizing. The features and technical data of this novel pusher furnacesystem are discussed together with various applications for automotive components