Grasslands and shrublands of the middle east and the Caucasus

The Middle East and the Caucasus grasslands and shrublands host a high diversity of habitats, species and land management practices. It is the homeland of the earliest agriculture and many ancient civilizations following it. The land extends across more than 2 million km2, spanning the majority of nine countries with 269 million people living within. The variety of climate types, orography and position with respect to four floristic regions (Mediterranean, Euro-Siberian, Irano-Turanian and Saharo-Sindian) play an important role in the diversification and distribution of the vegetation. Major vegetation zones of interest are steppes, forest-steppes and related shrublands. The steppe zone is marked with Artemisia steppes of the plains, tragacanthic/thorn-cushion steppes of the mountains and scattered intrazonal saline vegetation. Forest-steppes and related shrublands are dominated by Pistachio-almonds in dry foothills and by oaks-junipers on the mountains. The region is one of the richest in terms of biodiversity: the Irano-Anatolian biodiversity hotspot covers most of the Middle East and neighbors the Caucasus hotspot. It is an endemism center pronounced with more than 4000 endemic plants and some butterfly genera. Furthermore, it supports populations of several endangered large herbivores as well as top predators such as the leopard. Livestock keeping is the major land-use activity on grasslands. Grasslands are mostly managed extensively around villages and in the form of large-scale transhumance in highlands. Shrubs and trees are harvested for fuel, construction material for local use and charcoal production. Unregulated (unsustainable) grazing, conversion to croplands, afforestation with non-native tree species, mining and energy production projects are the major threats that cause habitat degradation, fragmentation and loss. The protected areas cover ca. less than 15% of each country and their efficiency to fulfill conserve priorities are under question. © 2020 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.2-s2.0-8510246301