The Composition of Public Expenditure: Does it Matter for Economic Growth?

Abstract: In the past, a lot of studies put more emphasis on the aggregate government expenditure as the primary driver of social and economic growth which is in the short term. The studies did not capture expenditures on infrastructure, education, and defense which are the disaggregate government expenditure that sustains both social and economic growth in the long term. The objective of this study is to determine how the demand and supply side of government expenditure can impact on social and economic growth using 45 both advanced and emerging countries. It also wants to establish the expenses that have a long-term effect on growth using balance panel dataset and estimate the relationship between the expenditures in different sectors. We use OLS model to evaluate the impact. The main result is that: when we consider a panel set using fixed effect on the leading indicators of economic growth, that the supply side of public spending on infrastructure, education, transport, communication, agriculture, etc. increases production and economic growth in the sampled countries. Besides, we used data from 1995-2015, and the finding will help us to understand the long-term effect of government expenditure that enhances production and growth while controlling for the demand side

A Critique of the Global Literature on the Conservation Refugee Problem

Displacement of people has often been driven by large scale development projects, wars, disease and ecological disasters such as famine and drought. However, there is another category of displaced people who have often been ignored. These people who are victims of a much more noble cause are referred to as conservation refugees. Conservation refugees are people displaced from protected areas. Despite the existence of conservation refugees and their plight, only Brockington and Igoe (2006) have attempted a global literature review on the problem. While their study explains who conservation refugees are as well as when and where the displacements have occurred, my study goes further and critiques the international law and declaration designed to protect the rights of conservation refugees. I also examine conservation policies and the impacts of displacement on conservation refugees based on the Impoverishment Risk Reconstruct Model (IRR) of Cernea (1997). My literature review explains who conservation refugees and describes their global distribution. The review of literature in English and French uncovers 170 relevant articles, of which 73 dealt with issues directly related to conservation refugees. I find that most of the approximately 3,058,000 conservation refugees are members of 28 different indigenous groups displaced across 48 protected areas. I also introduce and discuss international law and declarations aimed at protecting conservation refugees and point out that it is not their inadequacy as laws in protecting conservation refugees but rather a local failure to enforce them. Conservation policies themselves are also a major factor in protecting inhabitants of protected areas. Often conservation organizations are more sensitive to the protection of flora and fauna rather than the well-being of the area’s inhabitants. Therefore, the goal of double sustainability is not met and this affects the relationship between local people and protected areas in a negative way. One thing we have learned is that protected areas across the world operate much more successfully when they are managed with or by indigenous peoples themselves

A novel TetR-like transcriptional regulator is induced in acid-nitrosative stress and controls expression of an efflux pump in mycobacteria

Mycobacterium tuberculosis has the ability to survive inside macrophages under acid-nitrosative stress. M. tuberculosis Rv1685c and its ortholog in M. smegmatis, MSMEG_3765, are induced on exposure to acid-nitrosative stress. Both genes are annotated as TetR transcriptional regulators, a family of proteins that regulate a wide range of cellular activities, including multidrug resistance, carbon catabolism and virulence. Here, we demonstrate that MSMEG_3765 is co-transcribed with the upstream genes MSMEG_3762 and MSMEG_3763, encoding efflux pump components. RTq-PCR and GFP-reporter assays showed that the MSMEG_3762/63/65 gene cluster, and the orthologous region in M. tuberculosis (Rv1687c/86c/85c), was up-regulated in a MSMEG_3765 null mutant, suggesting that MSMEG_3765 acts as a repressor, typical of this family of regulators. We further defined the MSMEG_3765 regulon using genome-wide transcriptional profiling and used reporter assays to confirm that the MSMEG_3762/63/65 promoter was induced under acid-nitrosative stress. A putative 36 bp regulatory motif was identified upstream of the gene clusters in both M. smegmatis and M. tuberculosis and purified recombinant MSMEG_3765 protein was found to bind to DNA fragments containing this motif from both M. smegmatis and M. tuberculosis upstream regulatory regions. These results suggest that the TetR repressor MSMEG_3765/Rv1685c controls expression of an efflux pump with an, as yet, undefined role in the mycobacterial response to acid-nitrosative stress

Counting Mycobacteria in Infected Human Cells and Mouse Tissue: A Comparison between qPCR and CFU

Due to the slow growth rate and pathogenicity of mycobacteria, enumeration by traditional reference methods like colony counting is notoriously time-consuming, inconvenient and biohazardous. Thus, novel methods that rapidly and reliably quantify mycobacteria are warranted in experimental models to facilitate basic research, development of vaccines and anti-mycobacterial drugs. In this study we have developed quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) assays for simultaneous quantification of mycobacterial and host DNA in infected human macrophage cultures and in mouse tissues. The qPCR method cannot discriminate live from dead bacteria and found a 10- to 100-fold excess of mycobacterial genomes, relative to colony formation. However, good linear correlations were observed between viable colony counts and qPCR results from infected macrophage cultures (Pearson correlation coefficient [r] for M. tuberculosis = 0.82; M. a. avium = 0.95; M. a. paratuberculosis = 0.91). Regression models that predict colony counts from qPCR data in infected macrophages were validated empirically and showed a high degree of agreement with observed counts. Similar correlation results were also obtained in liver and spleen homogenates of M. a. avium infected mice, although the correlations were distinct for the early phase (<day 9 post-infection) and later phase (≥day 20 post-infection) liver r = 0.94 and r = 0.91; spleen r = 0.91 and r = 0.87, respectively. Interestingly, in the mouse model the number of live bacteria as determined by colony counts constituted a much higher proportion of the total genomic qPCR count in the early phase (geometric mean ratio of 0.37 and 0.34 in spleen and liver, respectively), as compared to later phase of infection (geometric mean ratio of 0.01 in both spleen and liver). Overall, qPCR methods offer advantages in biosafety, time-saving, assay range and reproducibility compared to colony counting. Additionally, the duplex format allows enumeration of bacteria per host cell, an advantage in experiments where variable cell death can give misleading colony counts

Striving for just sustainabilities in urban foodscape planning: the case of Almere city in the Netherlands

As cities increasingly adopt diverse ethnic, social, and cultural characteristics, there is an emerging logic for planning and policy to reflect this hyper-diversity (inclusion) while resolving the looming sustainability-related challenges. However, what is not adequately addressed in the current literature on urban planning – which could also solidify the justification for more citizen inclusion – is what happens when citizens are involved in planning from the perspective of sustainability. In response, this paper asks a key question: “What are the implications, in the case of urban foodscape, when citizens are involved in planning from the perspective of sustainability?” This question is investigated in this paper in the domain of urban foodscapes and through qualitative interviews, with the support of maps, in the Dutch city of Almere. A novel theoretical combination of just sustainabilities and social licence to operate (SLO) was utilised to frame citizen inclusion in foodscape planning. The findings showed that based on everyday practical experiences of food access in the city, citizens were more concerned about social interaction, the representation of food from cultural origins, and local food production. This theoretical combination, as a way of deepening inclusion, would help avoid the tendency of urban planning being used as an instrument for glossing over social injustice under the guise of citizen participation. This paper, therefore, argues that SLO can be a key pathway for actualising just sustainabilities in both urban planning research and policy

Conservation-Induced Displacement: Building New Bridges in Social Relations

Purpose: This study utilises a case study approach among the displaced Baka communities of East Cameroon to deepen current understandings of social impact of conservation-induced displacement and to foster collaboration between host communities and sedentarized victims of conservation-induced displacement as an approach for diminishing social impact. Using a critical epistemological perspective, and departing from a critique of the sustainable livelihood approach with its focus on assets and capitals. The study seeks to reveal the extent to which the processes of dominance and subordination affect institutions of marginalization and exclusion which in turn, affect livelihood outcomes for victims of conservation-induced displacement. To inform this evaluation, this study’s theoretical framework was rooted in Paulo Freire's (1970; 2000) dialogical and anti-dialogical theories of dominance and action. This study explores the theoretical and practical dimensions of Freire’s theories as a means of harnessing the power of dialogue in inverting dominant discourse which subjects certain groups in a population to marginalization and exclusion following displacement and sedentarization. Research Methods: Mixed methods case study. Data on the discourse of dominance and subordination were collected through semi-structured and structured interviews with Baka participants, representatives of the government and non-governmental organisations, and the host Bantu community members. Findings were deductively analyzed using tenets of Freire's (1970) anti-dialogical theory. The course of action on dominant discourse inversion was also executed by participatory methods of photovoice and community football under the guidance of Freire’s dialogical theory of action. Findings: The findings suggest that although conservation-induced displacement has led to negative social impacts on the displaced and resettled, building social relations between the displaced and host communities is a first step in tackling processes and institutions of marginalization and exclusion which exacerbate impoverishment among displaced and resettled groups. This outcome vindicates nature conservancy as the sole culprit responsible for negative livelihood outcomes of people living in and around protected areas.Table of Contents Abstract (English).................................................................................................................................... 3 Abstract (Nederlands) .............................................................................................................................. 4 Abbreviations and Acronyms .................................................................................................................. 9 CHAPTER ONE: Introduction .............................................................................................................. 12 1.1: Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 12 1.2: Definition of key terms .............................................................................................................. 12 1.3: Rationale for this research .......................................................................................................... 14 1.3.1: Overview of impact of CIDR in literature ........................................................................... 14 1.3.2: Gaps in literature in relation to marginalisation .................................................................. 16 1.4: Introduction to research approach building on research gaps in literature ................................. 19 1.5: The Baka, displacement and resettlement in the Dja reserve area ............................................. 21 1.6: Thesis layout .............................................................................................................................. 23 1.7: Significance of this study ........................................................................................................... 25 PART ONE .......................................................................................................................................... 27 SETTING THE SCENE ..................................................................................................................... 27 CHAPTER TWO: Theoretical Framework ........................................................................................... 28 2.1: SLA ............................................................................................................................................ 28 2.2: Discourse .................................................................................................................................... 35 2.2.1: First arrival .......................................................................................................................... 35 2.2.2 Freire’s anti-dialogical and dialogical theories .................................................................... 37 2.3: Statement of research questions ................................................................................................. 51 2.4: Conclusion .................................................................................................................................. 52 CHAPTER THREE: Methodology ....................................................................................................... 54 3.1: Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 54 3.2: Epistemology .............................................................................................................................. 54 3.3: Positionality ................................................................................................................................ 56 3.4: Selection of case study sites ....................................................................................................... 58 3.5: Sampling..................................................................................................................................... 60 3.6: Ethical considerations ................................................................................................................ 61 3.7: Methods ...................................................................................................................................... 61 3.7.1: First Fieldwork – July to September 2012 .......................................................................... 63 3.7.2: Second Fieldwork – April – June 2013 ............................................................................... 66 3.7.3: Third Fieldwork – April – June 2014 .................................................................................. 66 3.8: Participatory observation and field notes ................................................................................... 67 6 3.9: Credibility................................................................................................................................... 68 3.10: Conclusion ................................................................................................................................ 70 CHAPTER FOUR: The Context ........................................................................................................... 72 4.1: Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 72 4.2: Rationale for choice of the study area ........................................................................................ 72 4.3: The environment ........................................................................................................................ 75 4.3.1: Physical environment .......................................................................................................... 75 4.3.2: The human environment ...................................................................................................... 77 4.3.3: Economic activities ............................................................................................................. 89 4.3.4: Legal framework ................................................................................................................. 92 4.4: Conclusion .................................................................................................................................. 95 PART TWO ......................................................................................................................................... 97 ANALYSIS ........................................................................................................................................... 97 CHAPTER FIVE: Access to discourse, marginalisation and exclusion................................................ 98 5.1: Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 98 5.2: Anti-dialogical theory ................................................................................................................ 98 5.3: Study background ..................................................................................................................... 100 5.4: Methods .................................................................................................................................... 101 5.5: Findings .................................................................................................................................... 102 5.5.1: Government discourse at national level ............................................................................ 102 5.5.2: Mass media discourse ........................................................................................................ 104 5.5.3: Local bureaucratic practice discourse ............................................................................... 107 5.5.4: Scholarly discourse............................................................................................................ 111 5.5.5: Corporate discourse ........................................................................................................... 112 5.6: Discussion ................................................................................................................................ 115 5.7: Conclusion ................................................................................................................................ 115 5.8: Acknowledgements .................................................................................................................. 116 CHAPTER SIX: Adaptive livelihood strategies in conservation-induced displacement .................... 118 6.1: Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 118 6.2: Cultural invasion in the anti-dialogical theory of dominance .................................................. 118 6.3: Material and methods ............................................................................................................... 119 6.4: Results: Adaptive strategies ..................................................................................................... 123 6.4.1: Illegal hunting with guns ................................................................................................... 123 6.4.2: Alcohol consumption ........................................................................................................ 128 6.4.3: Agriculture ........................................................................................................................ 130 6.4.4: Clinical medicine ............................................................................................................... 131 7 6.5: Discussion ................................................................................................................................ 133 6.6: Conclusion ................................................................................................................................ 136 6.7: Acknowledgments .................................................................................................................... 138 PART THREE ................................................................................................................................... 139 ACTION ............................................................................................................................................. 139 CHAPTER SEVEN: The role of photovoice in the inversion of discourse: Conservation-induced displacement ........................................................................................................................................ 140 7.1: Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 140 7.2: Background .............................................................................................................................. 141 7.3: Materials and method ............................................................................................................... 142 7.3.1: Study design ...................................................................................................................... 142 7.3.2: Recruitment of participants ............................................................................................... 142 7.3.3: Taking of photographs....................................................................................................... 143 7.3.4: Discussing the photographs ............................................................................................... 143 7.4: Results of the photovoice exercise ........................................................................................... 144 7.4.1: Poor housing conditions .................................................................................................... 145 7.4.2: Inadequate care for children and elderly people ................................................................ 149 7.4.3: Malnutrition ....................................................................................................................... 152 7.4.4: Poor sanitary conditions .................................................................................................... 154 7.4.5: Insufficient income generating activities........................................................................... 158 7.4.6: Alcohol abuse .................................................................................................................... 159 7.4.7: Lack of interest in formal education .................................................................................. 162 7.4.8: Loss of culture and medicinal knowledge ......................................................................... 163 7.4.9: Burden of domestic responsibilities on women ................................................................. 164 7.4.10: The lack of potable water ................................................................................................ 166 7.4.11: Juvenile delinquency ....................................................................................................... 167 7.4.12: Low life expectancy ........................................................................................................ 168 7.4.13: Deforestation and climate change ................................................................................... 168 7.5: Discussion ................................................................................................................................ 170 7.5.1: Self-awareness or self-blame? ........................................................................................... 170 7.5.2: Self-awareness as a first step in the process of change ..................................................... 172 7.5.3: Limitations of Photovoice ................................................................................................. 175 7.5.4: Diversity of perceptions on livelihood challenges and remedies ...................................... 176 7.5.5: Frequency of basic need themes ........................................................................................ 177 7.6: Conclusion ................................................................................................................................ 177 7.7: Acknowledgements .................................................................................................................. 178 8 CHAPTER EIGHT: Football for solidarity: Bridging gaps in the relationship between the Baka and the Bantu ............................................................................................................................................. 180 8.1: Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 180 8.2: Setting the scene ....................................................................................................................... 183 8.3: Methods .................................................................................................................................... 186 8.4: Findings .................................................................................................................................... 189 8.5: Discussion ................................................................................................................................ 194 8.6: Conclusion ................................................................................................................................ 198 8.7: Acknowledgements .................................................................................................................. 199 CHAPTER NINE: Conclusion ............................................................................................................ 200 9.1: Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 200 9.2: Revisiting the hypotheses and research questions .................................................................... 200 9.3: Revisiting the theoretical framework and lessons for conservation studies ............................. 206 9.4: Policy recommendations .......................................................................................................... 209 9.4.1: Representation of the oppressed in sedentary society ....................................................... 209 9.4.2: Enforcement of law and declarations ................................................................................ 210 7.4.3: Impact assessment or prediction ........................................................................................ 215 9.4.4: More broad-based intergroup community building interventions ..................................... 216 9.5: Recommendations for further research .................................................................................... 217 9.6: Closing argument ..................................................................................................................... 219 REFERENCES .................................................................................................................................... 221 APPENDIX 1: The articles of ILO Convention 169 which are directly relevant to CIDR ................. 251 APPENDIX 2: Sample questions used in the questionnaires .............................................................. 252 APPENDIX 3: Overlap of biodiversity and cultural diversity ............................................................ 254 APPENDIX 4: List of NGOs which operate (or used to operate) in the study area ............................ 255 APPENDIX 5: Authorisation to organize a public event .................................................................... 256nrpages: 256status: publishe

Building inclusive healthy and sustainable food narratives

The aim was to study the needs, opportunities and effects of citizen engagement in the urban food system transition. This addresses the issue of - ‘how’, ‘in what ways’ and ‘through what methods’ - citizens can be engaged in the developments towards a more sustainable and healthy regional food system. The research project sought to investigate the roles citizen engagement can take in the transformation of the urban food environment towards healthier and sustainable food consumption patterns. The study covers desired food futures; food discourse; the message our bodies convey about our eating habits; the effect of Covid-19 on food pattern transformations; the term 'organic' in relation to food; mass media as a source of information about food

Why acknowledging and celebrating diversity in food is not just an aesthetic thing to do

It is believed that recognising and celebrating diversity in our foodscapes is the right thing to do. But why, really? What benefits make it paramount for this diversity to be lauded? This question needs answering to add more legitimacy to promoting urban food diversity. In this essay we try to do so by investigating the link between ‘recognition justice’ – the celebration of diversity –and inclusion, and understanding inclusion as vital for (social) sustainability. We use two research projects to demonstrate empirically-based lessons which can be drawn to support the need to recognise and celebrate diversity in our urban foodscape

Entrepreneurship in microfranchising: an emerging market perspective

Building on the limitations of the efforts of aid agencies and non-governmental organisations to pull the poor out of poverty in low- and middle-income countries and declining opportunities for market expansion in high-income countries, microfranchising is being promoted as a pro-poor business model, which promotes entrepreneurship. Sub-Saharan Africa has become a fertile ground for the propagation of this model. However, contemporary studies on microfranchising have not sufficiently explored what motivates people to turn to this method of doing business.ASC – Publicaties niet-programma gebonde

Molecular basis of mycobacterial survival in macrophages

Macrophages play an essential role in the immune system by ingesting and degrading invading pathogens, initiating an inflammatory response and instructing adaptive immune cells, and resolving inflammation to restore homeostasis. More interesting is the fact that some bacteria have evolved to use macrophages as a natural habitat and tools of spread in the host, e.g., Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) and some non-tuberculous mycobacteria (NTM). Mtb is considered one of humanity’s most successful pathogens and is the causal agent of tuberculosis, while NTMs cause opportunistic infections all of which are of significant public health concern. Here, we describe mechanisms by which intracellular pathogens, with an emphasis on mycobacteria, manipulate macrophage functions to circumvent killing and live inside these cells even under considerable immunological pressure. Such macrophage functions include the selective evasion or engagement of pattern recognition receptors, production of cytokines, reactive oxygen and nitrogen species, phagosome maturation, as well as other killing mechanisms like autophagy and cell death. A clear understanding of host responses elicited by a specific pathogen and strategies employed by the microbe to evade or exploit these is of significant importance for the development of effective vaccines and targeted immunotherapy against persistent intracellular infections like tuberculosis