Évolution des chromosomes sexuels chez les plantes : développements méthodologiques et analyses de données NGS de Silènes

In many organisms, sexes are determined by sex chromosomes. However, studies have been greatly limited by the paucity of sex chromosome sequences. Indeed, sequencing and assembling sex chromosomes are very challenging due to the large quantity of repetitive DNA that these chromosomes comprise. In this PhD, a probabilistic method was developed to infer sex-linked genes from RNA-seq data of a family (parents and progeny of each sex). The method, called SEX-DETector, was tested on simulated and real data and should performwell on a wide variety of sex chomosome systems. This new method was applied to Silene latifolia, a dioecious plant with XY system, for which partial sequence data on sex chromosomes are available (some of which obtained during this PhD by BAC sequencing), SEX-DETector returned ∼1300 sex-linked genes. In S. latifolia, Y genes are less expressed than their X counterparts. Dosage compensation (a mechanism that corrects for reduced dosage due to Y degeneration in males) was previously tested in S. latifolia, but different studies returned conflicting results. The analysis of the new set of sex-linked genes confirmed the existence of dosage compensation in S. latifolia, which seems to be achieved by the hyperexpression of the maternal X chromosome in males. An imprinting mechanism might underlie dosage compensation in that species. The RNAseq datawere also used to study the evolution of differential expression among sexes in S. latifolia, and revealed that in this species most changes have affected the female sex. The implications of our results for the evolution of dioecy and sex chromosomes in plants are discussedMalgré leur importance dans le déterminisme du sexe chez de nombreux organismes, les chromosomes sexuels ont été étudiés chez quelques espèces seulement du fait du manque de séquences disponibles. En effet, le séquençage et l'assemblage des chromosomes sexuels est rendu très difficile par leurs abondantes séquences répétées. Durant cette thèse, une méthode probabiliste a été développée pour inférer les gènes liés au sexe à partir de données RNA-seq chez une famille. Des tests de cette méthode appelée SEX-DETector sur des données réelles et simulées suggèrent qu'elle fonctionnera sur une grande variété de systèmes. La méthode a inféré ∼1300 gènes liés au sexe chez Silene latifolia, une plante dioïque qui possède des chromosomes sexuels XY pour lesquels quelques données de séquence sont disponibles (dont certaines obtenues lors de cette thèse par séquençage de BACs). Les gènes du Y sont moins exprimés que ceux du X chez S. latifolia, mais le statut de la compensation de dosage (un mécanisme qui corrige la sous-expression des gènes liés au sexe chez les males) est encore controversé. L'analyse des nouveaux gènes liés au sexe inférés par SEX-DETector a permis de confirmer la compensation de dosage chez S. latifolia, qui est effectuée par la surexpression du X maternel, possiblement via un mécanisme epigénétique d'empreinte. Les données ont également été utilisées pour étudier l'évolution de l'expression biaisée pour le sexe chez S. latifolia et ont révélé que la majorité des changements de niveaux d'expression ont eu lieu chez les femelles. Les implications de nos résultats concernant l'évolution de la dioécie et des chromosomes sexuels sont discuté

Epigenetics drive the evolution of sex chromosomes in animals and plants

We review how epigenetics affect sex chromosome evolution in animals and plants. In a few species, sex is determined epigenetically through the action of Y-encoded small RNAs. Epigenetics is also responsible for changing the sex of individuals through time, even in species that carry sex chromosomes, and could favour species adaptation through breeding system plasticity. The Y chromosome accumulates repeats that become epigenetically silenced which leads to an epigenetic conflict with the expression of Y genes and could accelerate Y degeneration. Y heterochromatin can be lost through ageing, which activates transposable elements and lowers male longevity. Y chromosome degeneration has led to the evolution of meiotic sex chromosome inactivation in eutherians (placentals) and marsupials, and dosage compensation mechanisms in animals and plants. X-inactivation convergently evolved in eutherians and marsupials via two independently evolved non-coding RNAs. In Drosophila, male X upregulation by the male specific lethal (MSL) complex can spread to neo-X chromosomes through the transposition of transposable elements that carry an MSL-binding motif. We discuss similarities and possible differences between plants and animals and suggest future directions for this dynamic field of research. This article is part of the theme issue ‘How does epigenetics influence the course of evolution?’info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersio

Genomic imprinting mediates dosage compensation in a young plant XY system.: An article peer-reviewed and recommended by Peer Community In Evolutionary Biology (PCI Evol Biol)

This preprint has been reviewed and recommended by Peer Community In Evolutionary Biology (http://dx.doi.org/10.24072/pci.evolbiol.100044). Sex chromosomes have repeatedly evolved from a pair of autosomes. Consequently, X and Y chromosomes initially have similar gene content, but ongoing Y degeneration leads to reduced Y gene expression and eventual Y gene loss. The resulting imbalance in gene expression between Y genes and the rest of the genome is expected to reduce male fitness, especially when protein networks have components from both autosomes and sex chromosomes. A diverse set of dosage compensating mechanisms that alleviates these negative effects has been described in animals. However, the early steps in the evolution of dosage compensation remain unknown and dosage compensation is poorly understood in plants. Here we show a novel dosage compensation mechanism in the evolutionarily young XY sex determination system of the plant Silene latifolia. Genomic imprinting results in higher expression from the maternal X chromosome in both males and females. This compensates for reduced Y expression in males but results in X overexpression in females and may be detrimental. It could represent a transient early stage in the evolution of dosage compensation. Our finding has striking resemblance to the first stage proposed by Ohno for the evolution of X inactivation in mammals

Rapid De Novo Evolution of X Chromosome Dosage Compensation in Silene latifolia, a Plant with Young Sex Chromosomes

Evidence for dosage compensation in Silene latifolia, a plant with 10-million-year-old sex chromosomes, reveals that dosage compensation can evolve rapidly in young XY systems and is not an animal-specific phenomenon

Sex chromosome evolution in plants : methodological developments and NGS data analysis in the Silene genus

Malgré leur importance dans le déterminisme du sexe chez de nombreux organismes, les chromosomes sexuels ont été étudiés chez quelques espèces seulement du fait du manque de séquences disponibles. En effet, le séquençage et l'assemblage des chromosomes sexuels est rendu très difficile par leurs abondantes séquences répétées. Durant cette thèse, une méthode probabiliste a été développée pour inférer les gènes liés au sexe à partir de données RNA-seq chez une famille. Des tests de cette méthode appelée SEX-DETector sur des données réelles et simulées suggèrent qu'elle fonctionnera sur une grande variété de systèmes. La méthode a inféré ∼1300 gènes liés au sexe chez Silene latifolia, une plante dioïque qui possède des chromosomes sexuels XY pour lesquels quelques données de séquence sont disponibles (dont certaines obtenues lors de cette thèse par séquençage de BACs). Les gènes du Y sont moins exprimés que ceux du X chez S. latifolia, mais le statut de la compensation de dosage (un mécanisme qui corrige la sous-expression des gènes liés au sexe chez les males) est encore controversé. L'analyse des nouveaux gènes liés au sexe inférés par SEX-DETector a permis de confirmer la compensation de dosage chez S. latifolia, qui est effectuée par la surexpression du X maternel, possiblement via un mécanisme epigénétique d'empreinte. Les données ont également été utilisées pour étudier l'évolution de l'expression biaisée pour le sexe chez S. latifolia et ont révélé que la majorité des changements de niveaux d'expression ont eu lieu chez les femelles. Les implications de nos résultats concernant l'évolution de la dioécie et des chromosomes sexuels sont discutésIn many organisms, sexes are determined by sex chromosomes. However, studies have been greatly limited by the paucity of sex chromosome sequences. Indeed, sequencing and assembling sex chromosomes are very challenging due to the large quantity of repetitive DNA that these chromosomes comprise. In this PhD, a probabilistic method was developed to infer sex-linked genes from RNA-seq data of a family (parents and progeny of each sex). The method, called SEX-DETector, was tested on simulated and real data and should performwell on a wide variety of sex chomosome systems. This new method was applied to Silene latifolia, a dioecious plant with XY system, for which partial sequence data on sex chromosomes are available (some of which obtained during this PhD by BAC sequencing), SEX-DETector returned ∼1300 sex-linked genes. In S. latifolia, Y genes are less expressed than their X counterparts. Dosage compensation (a mechanism that corrects for reduced dosage due to Y degeneration in males) was previously tested in S. latifolia, but different studies returned conflicting results. The analysis of the new set of sex-linked genes confirmed the existence of dosage compensation in S. latifolia, which seems to be achieved by the hyperexpression of the maternal X chromosome in males. An imprinting mechanism might underlie dosage compensation in that species. The RNAseq datawere also used to study the evolution of differential expression among sexes in S. latifolia, and revealed that in this species most changes have affected the female sex. The implications of our results for the evolution of dioecy and sex chromosomes in plants are discusse

Data from: Mating systems and selection efficacy: a test using chloroplastic sequence data in Angiosperms

Selfing is assumed to reduce selection efficacy, especially purifying selection. This can be tested using molecular data, for example by comparing the Dn/Ds ratio between selfing and outcrossing lineages. So far, little evidence of relaxed selection against weakly deleterious mutations (as inferred by a higher Dn/Ds ratio) in selfers as compared to outcrossers has been found, contrary to the pattern often observed between asexual and sexual lineages. However, few groups have been studied to date. To further test this hypothesis, we compiled and analysed chloroplastic sequence data sets in several plant groups. We found a general trend towards relaxed selection in selfers in our data sets but with weak statistical support. Simulations suggested that the results were compatible with weak-to-moderate Dn/Ds ratio differences in selfing lineages. Simple theoretical predictions also showed that the ability to detect relaxed selection in selfers could strongly depend on the distribution of the effects of deleterious mutations on fitness. Our results are compatible with a recent origin of selfing lineages whereby deleterious mutations potentially have a strong impact on population extinction or with a more ancient origin but without a marked effect of deleterious mutations on the extinction dynamics

Life Histories, Axes of Variation in

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Trees

This text file contains all the trees used for the PAML analyses in newick format. As mentioned in the file, the PAML annotation (#1) was used to annotate SELF branches

Alignments

This folder contain all the clean alignments used for PAML analyses. The name of the files are of the form TaxonomicGroup_Gene.phy