Modeling and validation of the baling process in the compression chamber of a large square baler

The pressure-density relationship and the pressure distribution inside the compression chamber of a newly designed New Holland BB960 large square baler were studied for the baling of alfalfa, whole green barley, barley straw, and wheat straw. An analytical model was developed for the pressure distribution inside the compression chamber of the large square baler in the x-, y-, and z-directions by assuming isotropic linear elastic properties for forage materials. In order to validate this model, a tri-axial sensor was designed and used to measure the forces inside the compression chamber when whole green barley, barley straw, and wheat straw were baled. The experimental results proved that the developed analytical model for each of the tested forage materials had a good correlation with the experimental data with a reasonable coefficient of determination (0.95) and standard error (20.0 kPa). Test data were also used to develop an empirical model for the pressure distribution inside the compression chamber of the baler for each of the tested forage materials using least square method in regression analysis. These empirical models were simple equations which were only functions of the distance from the full extension point of the plunger along the compression chamber length.Analytical and empirical models were also developed for the pressure-density relationship of the baler for baling alfalfa and barley straw. Results showed that bale density initially decreased with distance from the plunger, and then remained almost constant up to the end of the compression chamber. The developed empirical model for both alfalfa and barley straw was a combination of a quadratic and an exponential equation. In order to validate the developed models, field tests were performed by baling alfalfa and barley straw of different moisture contents, flake sizes, and load settings. The forces on the plunger arms were recorded by a data acquisition system. The actual bale bulk density was calculated by measuring the bale dimensions and weight. Results showed that both load setting and flake size had a significant effect on the plunger force. The plunger force increased with increased load setting and flake size. Comparing analytical and empirical models for bale density as a function of the pressure on the plunger showed that the trend of variation of density with pressure in both models was similar, but the rate of change was different. The variation rate of density with pressure in the analytical model was higher than that of the empirical model. The analytical model underestimated the bale density at low plunger pressures but showed more accurate prediction at higher pressures, while the empirical model accurately predicted the bale density at both low and high pressures. Some crop properties such as coefficient of friction and modulus of elasticity were determined for the development of the pressure distribution model. Results showed that static coefficient of friction of alfalfa on a polished steel surface was a quadratic function of material moisture content, while the relationship between the coefficient of friction of barley straw on a polished steel surface and material moisture content was best expressed by a linear equation. Results of this study also proved that modulus of elasticity of alfalfa and barley straw was constant for the density range encountered in the large square baler

Time-series analysis of temperature and relationship between atmospheric systems and recurring maximum temperatures-A case study of Isfahan city

ABSTRACT The environmental effect of temperature and the role in which the latter plays in micro-andmacro-models planning has attracted the attention of researchers. The aim of this paper is to study temperature variation for Isfahan during INTRODUCTION The socio-economic and environmental effects of global warming exist because of certain fundamental issues such as climate change and extensive research has been conducted on global, regional, and local scales in this field. These previous studies indicate that there has been an average global temperature increase of 0.15 ± 0.45 °C over the past hundred years, and there has been an obvious increasing trend in the first decade of the twentieth century. Daily changes in air quality, air pollution standard index shows that this comparison is the range of urban air pollution in cities provides. Ecologists believe that longterm fluctuations in the average air temperature affect sensitive ecological systems, even if the fluctuations do not exceed 0.2-0.1 °C. Air quality standards for acceptable levels of pollutants in a certain set period of time and is produced in different countries with different method

Tillage and irrigation methods effects on energy use and greenhouse gas emissions in grain corn production

In this study, the effect of tillage and irrigation methods on energy use, energy indices, and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of grain corn production was evaluated. The research was conducted in the form of a split plot experimental design with three replicates in Fars province, Iran. Main plots were irrigation methods including surface irrigation (gated pipe), drip irrigation, and sprinkler irrigation. Tillage methods including no-till (NT), reduced tillage (RT), and conventional tillage (CT) were considered as sub plots in this research. Results showed that irrigation method had significant effect on energy use, output energy, energy indices, and GHG emissions of grain corn production, while tillage method had significant influence only on energy use, output energy, and net energy gain. Surface irrigation had the highest input energy (165856 MJ ha-1) and GHG emission (29376 kg CO2e ha-1) followed by sprinkler (117662 MJ ha-1 and 20363 kg CO2e ha-1) and drip irrigations (88597 MJ ha-1 and 15025 kg CO2e ha-1). Drip and sprinkler irrigations reduced input energy for 45 and 29% and the total GHG emissions for 48.9 and 30.7%, respectively compared to the surface irrigation in grain corn production. No-till reduced energy input and increased energy output by 2.3 and 9.8%, respectively compared to the conventional tillage. Results of this study also showed that corn production cropping system involving an efficient irrigation method (such as drip irrigation) and conservation tillage would be an energy efficient cropping system with low environmental pollution risks

Yield and water productivity influenced by conservation tillage and irrigation methods in wheat-maize cropping system

Objective of this study was to evaluate the interaction effect of conservation tillage and irrigation methods on the soil properties, crop yield and water productivity in wheat-maize cropping system. A split plot experimental design with three replications was used to conduct this study in Fars province, Iran. Surface irrigation, drip tape irrigation, and sprinkler irrigation were considered as main plots, and no-tillage, reduced tillage, and conventional tillage were considered as sub plots. Results showed that surface irrigation had the maximum wheat yield on average and the maximum maize yield was obtained from drip tape irrigation on average; while, tillage methods had no significant effect on crops yield. Results also indicated that the maximum water productivities in wheat and maize production were obtained from drip tape irrigation on average and the minimum water productivities were related to the surface irrigation on average. Tape and sprinkler irrigation methods saved water compared to the surface irrigation by 43 and 22% on average in wheat and 57 and 34% on average in maize, respectively. No-tillage increased water content of soil compared to the conventional tillage by 51%. Plots irrigated with surface irrigation had the lowest soil infiltration rate, and no-tillage reduced soil infiltration rate compared to the conventional tillage by 26% on average. Conservation tillage methods increased organic carbon of the soil depth of 0.00 to 0.10 m by 12% compared to the conventional tillage. Therefore, tape irrigation in conservation tillage methods is recommended for wheat-maize cropping system in a semi-arid climate condition

Energy indices in irrigated wheat production under conservation and conventional tillage and planting methods

Introduction: Conservation tillage system was recommended for soil erosion control in North America for the first time 60 years ago (Wang et al., 2006). Using this tillage system including minimum and zero tillage has been rapidly developed in recent years. Thearea covered by zero tillage in 2006 was 95 million ha all over the world (Dumanski et al., 2006). In addition to saving soil and water resources, conservation tillage system reduces energy consumption and improves energy indices by combining different tillage and planting operations. Results of research conducted in Fars province shows that conservation tillage saves fuel consumption for 77% compared to the conventional system (Afzalinia et al., 2009). Conservation tillage also reduces energy consumption from 23.6 to 42.8% in comparison to the conventional tillage (Rusu, 2005). Since energy indices would be affected by reduced input energies in conservation tillage, this research was conducted to evaluate the effect of different tillage and planting methods on energy inputs and energy indices in irrigated wheat production in Eghlid region. Materials and Methods: This research was performed to evaluate and compare the energy indices in irrigated wheat production under different tillage and planting methods. The study was conducted in the form of a randomized complete block experimental design with five treatments and three replications in Eghlid region. The treatments were included, conventional tillage and seed broadcasting (A), conventional tillage and planting with Machine Barzegar grain drill (B), reduced tillage and seeding with Roto-seeder (C), direct seeding with Jairan Sanaat grain drill (D), and direct seeding with Sfoggia direct drill (E). Experimental plots with 10 by 50 m dimensions were used in this study. Loss crop residues were taken out of the experimental plots and standing crop residues were retained in the plots. In the conventional tillage method, primary tillage was performed using a moldboard plow and secondary tillage operation was done using a disk harrow and land leveler. Seed bed was prepared in the reduced tillage method using a tine and disc cultivator which was able to complete the primary and secondary tillage operations simultaneously. Wheat seed was directly planted using direct planter without any seed bed preparation in the zero tillage method. Surface irrigation method was used to irrigate the plots and 11970 m3/ha water was consumed in each treatment. Input energies including direct energy (diesel and electricity) and indirect energy (water, labor, seed, fertilizer, chemicals, and machinery) were measured and calculated. Output energies (energy of grain and straw) were measured in each treatment and the share of each input energy, energy ratio, net energy gain, and energy productivity were determined and compared. Collected data were analyzed using SAS software and Duncan’s multiple range tests was used to compare the treatments means. Results and Discussion: Results showed that tillage and planting methods had a significant effect on fuel and machinery energies; while, the total input energy, crop grain yield, and crop biologic yield were not affected by the tillage and planting methods (Table 4). Fertilizers and chemicals had the highest contribution in input energy of all treatments. Results also indicated that reduced tillage and seeding with Roto-seeder had the highest energy ratio (1.46) and the lowest energy ratio (1.40) was related to the conventional tillage methods (Fig.1). The highest net energy gain (47653 MJ) was obtained from the reduced tillage and seeding with Roto-seeder; while, the lowest amount of net energy gain (41388 MJ) was related to the conventional tillage and planting with Machine Barzegar grain drill (Fig.3). Results also showed that the reduced tillage and seeding with Roto-seeder had the highest energy productivity (0.115 kg MJ-1) and the conventional tillage treatments had the lowest energy productivity of 0.110 kg MJ-1 (Fig.4). Conclusions: Results of this study showed that conservation tillage treatments (minimum and zero tillage) reduced total energy consumption (input energy) by decreasing fuel consumption and mechanical energy (energy of machinery) compared to the conventional tillage. Therefore, conservation tillage treatments had the higher energy ratio, net energy gain, and energy productivity compared to the conventional treatments. For this reason, conventional tillage and planting methods could be replaced with conservation tillage systems in Eghlid region. Meanwhile, in order to obtain more accurate results in energy indices comparison, differences in water consumption in various tillage and planting methods should be also considered

Changes in Soil Properties and Productivity under Different Tillage Practices and Wheat Genotypes: A Short-Term Study in Iran

Natural resources are the most limiting factors for sustainable agriculture in Iran. Traditional practices are intensive tillage that leads to a negative impact on crop productivity and soil properties. Conservation agriculture including tillage reductions, better agronomy, and improved varieties, showed encouraging results. The goal of this study was to test combined effect of tillage practices and wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) genotypes on soil properties as well as crop and water productivity. The experiment was conducted at Zarghan, Fars, Iran during 2014–2016. Experimental treatments were three-tillage practices—conventional tillage (CT), reduced tillage (RT), and no tillage (NT)—and four wheat genotypes were randomized in the main and subplots, respectively using split-plot randomized complete block design with three replications. Results showed NT had higher soil bulk density at surface soil, thereby lower cumulative water infiltration. The lowest soil organic carbon and total nitrogen were obtained under CT that led to the highest C:N ratio. Reduced tillage produced higher wheat yield and maize (Zea mays L.) biomass. Maximum irrigation water was applied under CT, which leads lower water productivity. The findings are based on short-term results, but it is important to evaluate medium- and long-term effects on soil properties, crop yields and water use in future

Investigation of biological effects of chitosan magnetic nano-composites hydrogel

The growing concern about microorganism infections, especially hospital-acquired infections, has driven the demand for effective and safe agents in recent years. Herein, novel nanocomposites were prepared based on layered double hydroxides (LDH NPs), Fe2O3 nanoparticles (Fe2O3 NPs), and chitosan hydrogel beads in different concentrations. The characteristics and composition of the prepared materials were investigated by various techniques such as XRD, FESEM, and FTIR. The results indicate that the nanocomposites are synthesized successfully, and each component is present in hydrogel matrixes. Then, their biomedical properties, including antibacterial, antifungal, and antioxidant activity, were examined. Our findings demonstrate that the antimicrobial activity of nanocomposites significantly depends on the concentration of each component and their chemical groups. It shows itself in the result of the inhibitory zone of all bacteria or fungi samples. The obtained results indicate that the nanocomposite of Chitosan-hydrogel beads with 20 LDH and Fe2O3 (CHB-LDH-Fe2O320) and Chitosan-hydrogel beads based on 20 LDH (CHB-LDH20) showed excellent antibacterial and antifungal properties against all tested bacteria and fungi (P <= 0.01). In addition, the antioxidant effects of the synthesized materials (especially CHB-LDH Fe2O320 and CHB-LDH20) were investigated, showing high antioxidant efficacy against DPPH free radicals (P <= 0.01). According to our findings, we can say that these materials are promising biomaterials for inhibiting some infectious bacteria and fungi