Review of the Latest Trends in Transplantation Immunology and its Role in Mortality Reduction

Transplantation immunology deals with the process of moving cells, tissues, or organs, from one site to another, either within the same person or between a donor and a recipient. If an organ system fails, or becomes damaged because of disease or injury, it can be replaced with a healthy organ or tissue from a donor. The process of transplantation has become increasingly popular due to its life saving benefit. In 2015 /2016 4601 patients\u27 lives were saved or improved by an organ transplant in the United Kingdom alone. Kidney transplants are the most common organ transplant followed by liver and pancreas. However, the complexity of the immune system of humans makes the process challenging. None the less immunosuppressive regimen has been introduced to reduce rejection and life-threatening consequences associated with transplant rejection. Data support the increasing benefit of the transplantation in the reduction of mortality or individuals with life threatening conditions improving their quality of life considerably. This work aims at exploring the overall benefit of transplantation in health care especially as it pertains to the reduction of mortality rate for patients in the United States and around the world

Incidence, type and causes of dispensing errors: A review of the literature

Sections PDFPDF Tools Share Abstract Objectives To identify, review and evaluate the published literature on the incidence, type and causes of dispensing errors in community and hospital pharmacy. Method Electronic databases were searched from 1966 to February 2008. This was supplemented by hand‐searching the bibliographies of retrieved articles. Analysis of the findings explored the research methods, operational definitions, incidence, type and causes of dispensing errors. Key findings Sixty papers were identified investigating dispensing errors in the UK, US, Australia, Spain and Brazil. In general, the incidence of dispensing errors varied depending on the study setting, dispensing system, research method and operational definitions. The most common dispensing errors identified by community and hospital pharmacies were dispensing the wrong drug, strength, form or quantity, or labelling medication with the incorrect directions. Factors subjectively reported as contributing to dispensing errors were look‐alike, sound‐alike drugs, low staffing and computer software. High workload, interruptions, distractions and inadequate lighting were objectively shown to increase the occurrence of dispensing errors. Conclusions Comparison of the reviewed studies was confounded by differences in study setting, research method and operational definitions for dispensing errors, error rate and classification of error types. The World Health Organization is currently developing global patient safety taxonomy. Such a standardized taxonomy for dispensing errors would facilitate consistent data collection and assist the development of error‐reduction strategies