RAZVOJ KONDIKCIJE OD RIMSKOG DO SAVREMENOG PRAVA

The article is dealing with centuries` long development of condiction as one of the most efficient legal remedies for unjust enrichment. Condiction is derived, like many other institutes, from Roman law. At the beginning, Roman law had only one type of condiction which was applied when a certain amount of money or an individualized item was transferred from the possession of one to the possession of another, without a valid legal title. Due to a creative activity of roman jurists, its field of application was widened. Codex Iustiniana, therefore, has a wide spectrum of different types of condictions applied to various cases of unjust enrichment. Roman law, however, did not overcome casuistic approach which prevented formulating a general condiction which would have the function of general enrichment action. The merit of glossators is that they had sistematized condictions and noticed the underlying principle of condiction i.e. the prohibition of unjust enrichment. Hence, they suggested that condiction should apply in cases of unjust enrichment which were present in the sources but without assigned legal remedy. Even though glossators recognized enrichment action in condiction, their approach did not depart from that of Roman law. Consequently, they could not extend the application of condiction to the cases of unjust enrichment not known to Roman law sources. The first distinguished thought on condiction as general enrichment action was that of Savigny, the founder of the German Historical School. Savigny pleaded for one type of condiction which would be applied in every case of unjust enrichment i. e. when debtor is enriched to the detriment of creditor without a legal basis or on the legal basis which subsequently ceased to exist. Bearing in mind the application of actio de in rem verso in ius commune, pandectists created a separate institute of unjust enrichment which represented a sublimation of different thoughts on condiction and actio de in rem verso. Valid Serbian law also prescribes separate institute of unjust enrichment which, besides general enrichment action, deals with some particular types of condiction and action de in rem verso.U radu se analizira viševekovni razvoj kondikcije kao jednog od najvažnijih sredstava za sprečavanje pravno neosnovanog obogaćenja. Kondikcija vodi poreklo iz rimskog prava u kome je u početku postojala samo jedna vrsta kondikcije koja se primenjivala uvek kada se tačno određena suma novca ili tačno određena stvar jednog lica nađe bez pravnog osnova u imovini drugog lica. Kreativnom delatnošću rimskih pravnika stvarane su dodatne pretpostavke za njenu primenu tako da je u Justinijanovoj kodifikaciji prisutan čitav spektar različitih vrsta kondikcija kojima su sankcionisani različiti slučajevi pravno neosnovanog obogaćenja. Ipak, rimsko pravo do kraja je ostalo u okvirima kazuističnog metoda, koji je isključivao stvaranje opšte kondikcije koja bi imala funkciju opšte tužbe iz obogaćenja. Zasluga glosatora ogleda se u tome što su izvršili sistematizaciju kondikcija i što su uvideli da ovo pravno sredstvo može imati širu primenu jer počiva na principu zabrane nesnovanog obogaćenja. Usled toga, neki od njih su se zalagali za primenu kondikcije u pojedinim slučajevima neosnovanog obogaćenja za koje je u Justinijanovoj kodifikaciji bila predviđena zaštita ali nije imenovano pravno sredstvo kojim se ona ostvaruje. Premda su u kondikciji prepoznali tužbu iz obogaćenja, glosatori su ostali u okvirima rešenja koje je nudilo rimsko pravo, zbog čega nisu ni mogli proširiti polje primene kondikcije na slučajeve neosnovanog obogaćenja koji nisu bili regulisani u rimskim izvorima. Iako je bilo ranijih nastojanja da se stvori opšta tužba iz obogaćenja, istaknuto učenje o kondikciji kao opštoj tužbi iz obogaćenja dao je tek osnivač nemačke istorijske pravne škole Savinji. On se zalagao za jedinstvenu kondikciju koja bi bila vrsta opšte tužbe jer bi se primenjivala uvek kada dođe do obogaćenja dužnika na račun imovine poverioca bez osnova ili kada je prvobitni osnov otpao. Imajući u vidu značajnu praktičnu primenu tužbe de in rem verso u opštem pravu (ius commune), pandektna nauka stvorila je poseban institute pravno neosnovanog obogaćenja koji predstavlja sublimaciju učenja o kondikcijama i verzionoj tužbi. Važeće srpsko pravo takođe predviđa poseban institut pravno neosnovanog obogaćenja u kome su pored opšte tužbe iz obogaćenja regulisane i neke posebne kondikcije kao i tužba de in rem verso

Determining the nutrients and their content in dehydrated sludge from purifiers of waste waters

Nepobitna je činjenica da je veza čovjeka i prirode neraskidiva te da podrazumijeva snažan međusoban utjecaj na globalnoj razini. Međutim, umjesto simbiotske veze, čovječanstvo je u novije doba preuzelo parazitsku ulogu iskorištavanja prirodnih resursa koja često uključuje onečišćenje okoliša. Voda kao osnovna ljudska potreba zauzima posebno mjesto u mnogobrojnim ljudskim aktivnostima, kako u svakodnevnoj konzumaciji potpadajući pod potrebe opskrbe stanovništva tako i u poljoprivredi, industriji i suvremenim tehnologijama usmjerenim unapređenju kvalitete ljudskog života. Neminovna posljedica takvog načina iskorištavanja vodnih resursa iziskuje pojavu otpadnih voda koje nam je zasigurno dužnost, ali i interes pročistiti. Uklanjanje hranjivih tvari iz otpadnih voda bitno je radi sprječavanja eutrofikacije površinskih voda, no one se zadržavaju u mulju koji se pojavljuje kao nusprodukt postupka pročišćavanja. Kako bi se zatvorio ciklus kruženja tvari u prirodi, mulj je potrebno obraditi, ali i zbrinuti na odgovarajući način, bez štetnih utjecaja na okoliš. Svoje mjesto pronalazi u poljoprivredi u kojoj dobiva svrhu oplemenjivanja tla nutrijentima kao što su dušik i fosfor kojima je bogat. Značajke mulja prema kojima se bira sustav za njegovu obradu možemo podijeliti na fizikalne, kemijske i biološke, a varijacije istih ovise o podrijetlu otpadne vode. Procesi koji se primjenjuju mogu se kombinirati na razne načine. U prvom redu se želi ukloniti što više vode iz mulja kako bi mu se smanjio volumen. Uvjeti oslobađanja viška vode iz mulja poboljšavaju se primjenjujući mehaničke i toplinske postupke kondicioniranja. Na taj način se mulj priprema za zgušnjavanje čvrste tvari i cijeđenje. Zgušnjavanje mulja je fizikalni proces smanjenje obujma vode u mulju. Postupak se provodi isplivavanjem ili gravitacijski, odnosno taloženjem. Stabilizacijom mulja se smanjuje sadržaj organske tvari i sprječava daljnja razgradnja. Smanjuje se intenzitet neugodnih mirisa te broj mikroorganizama. Najčešće korišteni su biološki aerobni i anaerobni procesi stabilizacije mulja, a moguća su i kemijska te toplinska stabilizacija. Proces odvodnjavanja mulja moguće je provesti na poljima za sušenje, te mehaničkim cijeđenjem na vakuumskim ili tlačnim cjediljkama te na centrifugama za mulj. Kako bi se postigla inertnost te smanjio volumen mulja, slijedi toplinska obrada postupcima sušenja, spaljivanja ili pirolize. Obrađeni se mulj zbog visokog udjela hranjivih tvari koristi u poljoprivredi kao poboljšivač tla. U svrhu utvrđivanja pogodnosti korištenja mulja s pročistača otpadnih voda u poljoprivredi, obrađeni su podaci te provedene analize mulja s Pročistača otpadnih voda Čakovec kako bi se dokazale ukupne koncentracije najzastupljenijih nutrijenata, odnosno dušika i fosfora u suhoj tvari mulja. Izračunom srednje vrijednosti danih podataka utvrđena je prosječna koncentracija koja za ukupan dušik u suhoj tvari mulja iznosi 3,31%, a za ukupan fosfor 1,48%. Prema provedenim istraživanjima i analizama, može se zaključiti da je mulj najprikladnije iskoristiti u poljoprivredi zbog sadržaja hranjivih tvari koje posjeduje

An Overview of Genetic Risk Factors in Thrombophilia

Thrombophilia is a multifactorial disorder, involving both genetic and acquired risk factors that affect the balance between procoagulant and anticoagulant factors and lead to increased tendency to thrombosis. The concept that thrombophilia could be associated with genetic defects was first proposed in 1965 after the discovery of familiar antihrombin III deficiency. Further family studies showed that deficiency of protein C or protein S also increased thrombotic risk. In the coming years the advent in DNA technology, especially the invention of PCR reaction, played an important role in the identification of the exact nature of these deficiencies and opened new possibilities in the genetic research of thrombophilia. The breakthrough came with the discovery of activated protein C resistance and Factor V Leiden mutation. Shortly afterwards a mutation in the 3' untranslated region of Factor II gene (FII G20210A) associated with increased concentration of factor II in plasma, was described. Large epidemiologic studies have conformed that these two common mutations represent significant risk factors for thrombophilia. In the last decade several prothrombotic genetic risk factors have been described, including genes variants associated with increased levels of coagulation factors, defects of natural coagulation inhibitors, defects of the fibrinolytic system and hyperhomocysteinemia. These genetic defects or their combination have been extensively studied in an attempt to elucidate the possible association with increased thrombotic tendency. The large-scale DNA analysis systems are now becoming available, opening a new era in the genetic studies of thrombophilia. New technology will enable many genes to be studied in a single patient bringing us closer to the "personalized" medicine

Molecular basis of thrombophilia

Trombofilija nastaje kao rezultat kompleksne interakcije između negenetičkih i genetičkih faktora rizika koji hemostaznu ravnotežu pomeraju u smeru hiperkoagulacije i dovode do pojave tromboze. Veoma značajan faktor rizika za nastanak trombofilije je deficijencija inhibitora koagulacije: antitrombina, proteina C ili proteina S. Veliki korak u razumevanju genetičke osnove i molekularne dijagnostike trombofilije napravljen je otkrićem rezistencije na aktivirani protein C i faktor V Leiden mutacije. Ubrzo je otkrivena i varijanta u 3'-nekodirajucem regionu gena za faktor II (FII G20210A), za koju je pokazano da dovodi do povišene koncentracije protrombina u plazmi. Ove dve genske varijante su najučestaliji genetički faktori rizika za nastanak trombofilije. Nedavno je opisana nova mutacija u genu za protrombin (c.1787G gt T) za koju je pokazano da dovodi do rezistencije na antitrombin, odnosno do smanjene mogućnosti inaktivacije mutiranog trombina od strane antitrombina, sto predstavlja novi mehanizam za nastanak trombofilije. U toku poslednjih decenija, opisan je veliki broj genetičkih faktora rizika za nastanak trombofilije, uključuju}i one koji dovode do: nedostatka inhibitora koagulacije, povećanog nivoa ili smanjene inaktivacije koagulacionih faktora ili defekata sistema za fibrinolizu. Međutim, većina njih nije od dijagnostičke važnosti zbog njihovog malog ili još uvek nepoznatog uticaja na etiologiju trombofilije. Primena novih tehnologija koje omogućavaju analizu velikog broja gena kod jednog pacijenta otvoriće mogućnost individualnog utvrđivanja genetičkih faktora rizika, samim tim i adekvatan terapeutski pristup.Thrombophilia is a multifactorial disorder, involving both genetic and acquired risk factors that affect the balance between procoagulant and anticoagulant factors and lead to increased thrombotic tendency. The severe forms of thrombophilia are caused by a deficiency of natural anticoagulants: antithrombin, protein C and protein S. The advances in DNA technology played an important role in the identification of the exact nature of these deficiencies and opened up new possibilities in genetic research and molecular diagnostics of thrombophilia. The major breakthrough came with the discovery of activated protein C resistance and the Factor V Leiden gene mutation. Shortly afterwards, a variant in the 3' untranslated region of the Factor II gene (FII G20210A) associated with an increased concentration of Factor II in plasma was described. These two gene variants represent the most common thrombophilic genetic risk factors. Recently, a novel prothrombin mutation (c.1787G gt T) was identified in a Japanese family with juvenile thrombosis. This mutation leads to impaired inhibition of mutant thrombin by antithrombin, proposing a new mechanism of thrombophilia named resistance to antithrombin. In the last decade, several prothrombotic genetic risk factors have been described, including gene variants associated with defects of natural coagulation inhibitors, increased levels of coagulation factors or their impaired inhibition and defects of the fibrinolytic system. However, most of them are not of diagnostic value, due to their minor or unknown impact on the thrombotic risk. Large-scale DNA analysis systems are now becoming available, opening a new era in the genetic studies of the molecular basis of thrombophilia

Condiction and unjust enrichment

Предмет рада представља утврђивање односа два института - кондикције и правно неоснованог обогаћења. Иако су настали у различитим периодима (кондикција је настала у антици док је правно неосновано обогаћење као посебан правни институт настао у XIX веку) оба института представљају правно уобличавање и конкретизацију исте идеје која се састоји у забрани неоснованог стицања на туђ рачун коју је формулисао римски правник Помпоније (D.12.6.14: Natura aequum est neminem cum alterius detrimento fieri locupletiorem – По природи, правично је да се нико не обогати на штету другога). Поред кондикције, велики утицај на стварање савременог института правно неоснованог обогаћења имала је и верзиона тужба (actio de in rem verso) чији битан елемент представља остварена корист на туђ рачун. У оној мери у којој је то потребно за расветљавање института правно неоснованог обогаћења, наше истраживање усмерено је и на утврђивање утицаја који је верзиона тужба имала на његов настанак. Развој правних установа одвија се не само кроз практичну примену већ и кроз узимање у обзир упоредноправних решења. Отуда је део рада посвећен иностраним прописима у материји правно неоснованог обогаћења (француском, италијанском, аустријском, немачком и англосаксонском праву). С обзиром да Закон о облигационим односима у чл. 210-219 прописује институт правно неоснованог обогаћења под називом „стицање без основа“, наше истраживање усмерено је и на анализу домаћих решења и њихове примене у судској пракси. Циљ рада представља установљење сличности и разлика између кондикционе и одговорности за обогаћење. Одговор на ово питање може бити полазиште будућих разматрања на који начин треба уредити материју правно неоснованог обогаћења у српском праву како би се у пракси санкционисао што већи број случајева неоснованог стицања на туђ рачун.The thesis aims at determining the relationship between two civil law institutes – Condiction and Unjust Enrichment. The understanding of this relation is not only important from the legal history point of view, but also as a starting point for further research and regulation of the institute in contemporary Serbian law. Although emerged in different periods (Condiction emerged in antiquity, while the Unjust Enrichment emerged in the ninetееnth century), both institutes represent juristic expression and formulation of the same idea – prohibition of ungrounded enrichment on detriment of another that has been formulated by the Roman jurist Pompоnius (D.12.6.14: Natura aequum est neminem cum alterius detrimento fieri locupletiorem – According to the laws of nature, it is just that no one should be enriched by the detriment of another). Along with Condiction, the emergence of the contemporary institute of Unjust Enrichment was greatly influenced by Аction De In Rem Verso, the important element of which is enrichment gained on the detriment of another. Where necessary for better understanding of Unjust Enrichment, the research has been focused also on the determination of influences that Аction De In Rem Verso had to the emergence of Unjust Enrichment. Legal institutes develop not only through application, but also take into account the comparative legal experience. Hence, part of the thesis is dedicated to cross border regulations of the matter (French, Italian, Austrian, German and Anglo-Saxon law). Taking into account that Law on Contracts and Torts prescribes unjust enrichment in Articles 210 to 219, our research is also focused on domestic regulations and their application in court practice. The following methods have been applied: historical, sociological, normative and comparative

CARVEDILOL POPULATION PHARMACOKINETIC ANALYSIS – APPLIED VALIDATION PROCEDURE

Carvedilol is a nonselective beta blocker/alpha-1 blocker, which is used for treatment of essential hypertension, chronic stable angina, unstable angina and ischemic left ventricular dysfunction. The aim of this study was to describe carvedilol population pharmacokinetic (PK) analysis as well as the validation of analytical procedure, which is an important step regarding this approach. In contemporary clinical practice, population PK analysis is often more important than standard PK approach in setting a mathematical model that describes the PK parameters. Also, it includes the variables that have particular importance in the drugs pharmacokinetics such as sex, body mass, dosage, pharmaceutical form, pathophysiological state, disease associated with the organism or the presence of a specific polymorphism in the isoenzyme important for biotransformation of the drug. One of the most frequently used approach in population PK analysis is the Nonlinear Modeling of Mixed Effects - NONMEM modeling. Analytical methods used in the data collection period is of great importance for the implementation of a population PK analysis of carvedilol in order to obtain reliable data that can be useful in clinical practice. High performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) analysis of carvedilol is used to confirm the identity of a drug and provide quantitative results and also to monitor the efficacy of the therapy. Analytical procedures used in other studies could not be fully implemented in our research as it was necessary to perform certain modification and validation of the method with the aim of using the obtained results for the purpose of a population pharmacokinetic analysis. Validation process is a logical terminal phase of analytical procedure development that provides applicability of the procedure itself. The goal of validation is to ensure consistency of the method and accuracy of results or to confirm the selection of analytical method for a given sample and drug. This study confirmed the importance of using valid analytical procedure for the purpose of carvedilol population pharmacokinetic analysis. Identification of demographic, pathophysiological and other factors that may influence the population carvedilol PK parameters gives the physician the possibility of a more comprehensive overview of the patient and better optimization of the therapeutical regimen

The frequency of allele CCR5Δ32 in a Serbian population

Uvod: Nosioci alela CCR5Δ32 su relativno rezistentni na infekciju HIV-om. Postoji nekoliko hipoteza o poreklu i održanju ovog alela u ljudskoj populaciji. Pretpostavlja se da je mutacija Δ32 nastala u populaciji severne ili istočne Evrope i da se potom proširila ka jugu. Iako je učestalost CCR5Δ32 određena u mnogim evropskim populacijama, dodatni podaci su neophodni za formiranje sveobuhvatne slike o distribuciji CCR5Δ32 u Evropi. Zbog toga smo u našoj studiji odredili učestalost CCR5Δ32 u srpskoj populaciji, za koju do ovog rada nisu postojali takvi podaci. Metode: DNK je izolovana iz periferne krvi 352 osobe. U reakciji lančanog umnožavanja korišćeni su prajmeri specifični za gen CCR5. Dobijen je proizvod od 263 bp na osnovu matrice 'wild type', sekvence CCR5 gena, a proizvod od 231 bp na osnovu okrnjene sekvence gena CCR5 (CCR5Δ32). Ukupna učestalost alela CCR5Δ32 u srpskoj populaciji iznosi 4,55%. Rezultati: Od ukupnog broja analiziranih osoba, identifikovano je 8,52% heterozigotnih i 0,57% homozigotnih nosilaca za ovaj alel. Zaključak: Utvrđena učestalost alela CCR5Δ32 u srpskoj populaciji je neočekivano niska, u poređenju sa učestalošću u ostalim slovenskim populacijama.Background: The mutant CCR5Δ32 allele confers resistance to HIV infection. Several hypotheses regarding its origin and persistence in the human population have been proposed. It is assumed that the Δ32 mutation was introduced in Northern or Eastern Europe and that it spread to the south. Although the frequency of CCR5Δ32 was determined in numerous European nations and regions, further data are needed to complete the puzzle of CCR5Δ32 distribution within the continent. Methods: To this end, CCR5Δ32 frequency was determined in a Serbian population (sample size 352). DNA was extracted from peripheral whole blood and polymerase chain reaction specific for CCR5 gene was performed. A reaction product of 263 bp was obtained from the wild­type CCR5 sequence and a product of 231 bp was obtained from the truncated CCR5Δ32 sequence. Results: Overall allele frequency of CCR5Δ32 is 4.55%; 0.57% of individuals in the examined population are homozygous and 8.52% are heterozygous for CCR5Δ32. Conclusions: The determined frequency of the CCR5Δ32 allele in a Serbian population is unexpectedly low, considering ethnically related populations

Influence of different factors on the RAID 0 paired magnetic disk arrays

The rapid technological progress has led to a growing need for more data storage space. The appearance of big data requires larger storage space, faster access and exchange of data as well as data security. RAID (Redundant Array of Independent Disks) technology is one of the most cost-effective ways to satisfy needs for larger storage space, data access and protection. However, the connection of multiple secondary memory devices in RAID 0 aims to improve the secondary memory system in a way to provide greater storage capacity, increase both read data speed and write data speed but it is not fault-tolerant or error-free. This paper provides an analysis of the system for storing the data on the paired arrays of magnetic disks in a RAID 0 formation, with different number of queue entries for overlapped I/O, where queue depth parameter has the value of 1 and 4. The paper presents a range of test results and analysis for RAID 0 series for defined workload characteristics. The tests were carried on in Microsoft Windows Server 2008 R2 Standard operating system, using 2, 3, 4 and 6 paired magnetic disks and controlled by Dell PERC 6/i hardware RAID controller. For the needs of obtaining the measurement results, ATTO Disk Benchmark has been used. The obtained results have been analyzed and compared to the expected behavior

Early-onset ischaemic stroke in a patient with the novel F2 c.1824C>T gene variant and PAI-1 4G/4G, MTHFR 677TT genotype

Introduction. Ischemic stroke (IS) is a heterogeneous dis-order caused by several genetic and environmental risk factors. It was suggested that coagulation disorders cause 1-4% of cases with IS, especially in patients with early onset of IS. Case report. We describe a case of a young adult male who developed an unprovoked IS. Biochemical, immunological, and thrombophilia screening, as well as DNA sequencing, were performed in order to reveal molecular pathology underlying the stroke of the patient. Thrombophilia testing showed that patient was a homozygous carrier for PAI-1 4G/5G and MTHFR C677T mutations. Additional genetic analysis revealed the presence of the recently reported F2 c.1824C>T gene variant, located in the last exon of the pro-thrombin gene and has previously been shown to cause hy-perprothrombinemia, hypofibrinolysis, and altered fibrin clot phenotype. Conclusion. Our results suggest that the newly reported F2 c.1824C>T gene variant might have a synergistic effect with PAI 4G/4G and MTHFR 677TT genotype in the formation of altered fibrin clot phenotype characterized by thin, densely packed fibrin fibers, which makes clot less susceptible to fibrinolysis and greatly in-creases the risk for early ischemic stroke onset.Ishemijski moždani udar (IMU) je heterogeni poremećaj koji može biti uzrokovan genetskim faktorima rizika i faktorima sredine. Poremećaji koagulacije mogu biti uzročnici u 1-4% slučajeva IMU, naročito kod bolesnika kod kojih se IMU dogodi u mlađem životnom dobu. Prikaz bolesnika. Prikazan je slučaj bolesnika koji je u mlađem životnom dobu razvio IMU nepoznatog uzroka. Urađeni su biohemijski, imunološki i testovi za trombofiliju kao i sekvenciranje DNK sa ciljem da se utvrdi molekularna patologija koja je mogla biti u osnovi moždanog udara kod tog bolesnika. Testovima za trombofiliju utvrđeno je da je bolesnik homozigotni nosilac mutacija PAI-1 4G/5G i MTHFR C677T. Dodatnom genetičkom analizom otkriveno je prisustvo nedavno opisane F2 c.1824C>T genske varijante, koja se nalazi u poslednjem egzonu gena za protrombin i za koju je prethodno pokazano da izaziva hiperprotrombinemiju, hipofibrinolizu i izmenjeni fenotip fibrinskog ugruška. Zaključak. Naši rezultati ukazuju na to da bi nova F2 c.1824C>T genska varijanta mogla imati sinergistički efekat sa PAI 4G/4G i MTHFR 677TT genotipom u nastanku fibrinskog ugruška sa izmenjenim fenotipom, koji se odlikuje tankim, gusto upakovanim fibrinskim vlaknima, što čini ugrušak manje podložnim fibrinolizi i povećava rizik od nastanka IMU u ranijem životnom dobu