Kodizajn arhitekture i algoritama za lokalizacijumobilnih robota i detekciju prepreka baziranih namodelu

This thesis proposes SoPC (System on a Programmable Chip) architectures for efficient embedding of vison-based localization and obstacle detection tasks in a navigational pipeline on autonomous mobile robots. The obtained results are equivalent or better in comparison to state-ofthe- art. For localization, an efficient hardware architecture that supports EKF-SLAM's local map management with seven-dimensional landmarks in real time is developed. For obstacle detection a novel method of object recognition is proposed - detection by identification framework based on single detection window scale. This framework allows adequate algorithmic precision and execution speeds on embedded hardware platforms.Ova teza bavi se dizajnom SoPC (engl. System on a Programmable Chip) arhitektura i algoritama za efikasnu implementaciju zadataka lokalizacije i detekcije prepreka baziranih na viziji u kontekstu autonomne robotske navigacije. Za lokalizaciju, razvijena je efikasna računarska arhitektura za EKF-SLAM algoritam, koja podržava skladištenje i obradu sedmodimenzionalnih orijentira lokalne mape u realnom vremenu. Za detekciju prepreka je predložena nova metoda prepoznavanja objekata u slici putem prozora detekcije fiksne dimenzije, koja omogućava veću brzinu izvršavanja algoritma detekcije na namenskim računarskim platformama

Human locomotion: centre of mass and symmetry

In ambito di ricerca (clinica e sportiva), la necessit\ue0 di sviluppare un approccio \u2018multilaterale\u2019 (qualitativo e quantitativo) che caratterizzi matematicamente la traiettoria tri-dimensionale di una variabile fisica assolutamente importante ma spesso dimenticata, quale il centro di massa corporeo (CMC) (ovvero, il punto immaginario assimilabile al corpo umano in cui si suppone che tutte le masse corporee stiano concentrate), diviene oggi sempre pi\uf9 impellente e quanto mai urgente. Pertanto l\u2019obiettivo di questo dottorato, perseguito tramite un differente utilizzo delle classiche metodologie biomeccaniche, \ue8 rappresentare le grandezze cinematiche che descrivono il movimento dei segmenti corporei e del suddetto CMC nel tempo e nello spazio. Per conseguire questo traguardo si sono pensati e realizzati due diversi progetti. Con il primo progetto si sono previsti: a) lo sviluppo di un metodo matematico quantitativo (Serie di Fourier) per descrivere e rappresentare graficamente la traiettoria tri-dimensionale del CMC durante la locomozione su treadmill (la cosiddetta Impronta Digitale Locomotoria, specifica per soggetto/popolazione); b) la caratterizzazione della simmetria nella traiettoria del CMC (il cosiddetto Indice di Simmetria); infine, c) la costituzione di un database di valori normali (coefficienti di equazioni) in un insieme piuttosto esteso di condizioni, al variare di sesso (maschi versus femmine), et\ue0 (dai 6 ai 65 anni), tipologia di locomozione (marcia versus corsa), velocit\ue0 e pendenza (piano, salita e discesa). Questo database iniziale rappresenta il parametro principale di riferimento per la locomozione sana. Attraverso questo studio \ue8 stato ampiamente dimostrato che la locomozione umana risulta genericamente asimmetrica. Nello specifico: 1) tra maschi e femmine non si sono riscontrate differenze significative; 2) indipendentemente da et\ue0 e pendenza, le velocit\ue0 pi\uf9 basse, meno naturali e comuni, sono caratterizzate da pattern di Impronte Digitali Locomotorie pi\uf9 variabili. Viceversa, un aumento di velocit\ue0 \ue8 accoppiato con un progressivo e continuo innalzamento del CMC; 3) l\u2019asimmetria destra e sinistra del passo \ue8 molto probabilmente correlata sia con l\u2019anatomia (lunghezza della gamba) che con la predominanza dell\u2019arto; in linea con l\u2019ipotesi iniziale, 4) mediamente, la corsa \ue8 pi\uf9 asimmetrica della marcia; infine, 5) i bambini e gli anziani presentano maggiori asimmetrie (marcia e corsa): questo \ue8 dovuto alla progressiva maturazione del ciclo del cammino (nei bambini) ed alle caratteristiche muscolari e scheletriche dell\u2019apparato locomotore (negli anziani). Pertanto, attraverso una caratterizzazione matematica della traiettoria tri-dimensionale del CMC, si \ue8 potuto: a) quantificare il suo spostamento nel tempo e nello spazio; b) individuare l\u2019Impronta Digitale Locomotoria specifica di sesso, et\ue0, tipologia di locomozione, velocit\ue0 e pendenza. Questo importante traguardo permetter\ue0, in un immediato futuro, la comparazione con la situazione di normalit\ue0 di condizioni di locomozione compromessa o impedita (ad esempio, bambini con paralisi cerebrale infantile, obesi e amputati). Infine, la stima della principali variabili biomeccaniche \ue8 risultata fondamentale sia nel descrivere la meccanica di marcia e corsa che nel caratterizzarne la corrispondente impronta locomotoria. Le nostre misure di tali variabili (semplici e complesse), ottenute con metodo discreto (ciclo per ciclo), con l\u2019impiego di una funzione matematica continua (Serie di Fourier) e con l\u2019applicazione di un\u2019equazione predittiva (misura indiretta), soddisfano completamente ed addirittura ampliano la letteratura gi\ue0 esistente. Nel secondo progetto, partendo da uno studio sulla performance dei cavalli, si \ue8 cercato di verificare se esiste una correlazione tra simmetrie corporee (statiche e dinamiche) ed economia nella corsa anche in corridori umani variamente allenati (classificati in tre gruppi sulla base del loro miglior tempo nella maratona). Inoltre: a) si sono sviluppati metodi di analisi bi- e tri-dimensionale delle Risonanze Magnetiche per Immagini (regione pelvica ed arti inferiori), impiegate come riferimento per le simmetrie statiche; b) attraverso sia l\u2019Impronta Digitale Locomotoria che l\u2019Indice di Simmetria si sono caratterizzate le simmetrie dinamiche; infine c) l\u2019economia della corsa \ue8 stata espressa attraverso il suo reciproco, ovvero il costo metabolico. L\u2019analisi sia bi- che tri-dimensionale delle immagini ha evidenziato differenze davvero esigue in base al livello di allenamento. Positivamente ed indipendentemente dai corridori, si \ue8 dimostrato che ad una maggiore simmetria nella regione del ginocchio corrisponde una maggiore simmetria nella regione della caviglia. Inoltre l\u2019analisi delle simmetrie dinamiche ha permesso di osservare che: 1) il CMC si solleva leggermente in funzione della velocit\ue0; 2) le asimmetrie destre e sinistre del passo sono principalmente marcate lungo la direzione di movimento e, contemporaneamente, ridotte lungo la direzione verticale. Esse sono strettamente dipendenti dall\u2019anatomia e dall\u2019arto dominante; 3) diversamente da quanto ci si aspettava, sono state comunque evidenziate solamente poche differenze tra i corridori. Negativamente, l\u2019economia della corsa non mostra differenze significative tra i gruppi testati. Perci\uf2, diversamente dall\u2019ipotesi iniziale, non \ue8 stata evidenziata l\u2019esistenza di alcuna relazione tra le simmetrie corporee e l\u2019economia della corsa, quanto piuttosto solo la presenza di una discreta variabilit\ue0 in simmetria statica e dinamica. Infine, l\u2019analisi di bioenergetica (treadmill versus pista) e biomeccanica (variabili semplici/complesse e variabilit\ue0 spazio/temporale del CMC) della corsa ha evidenziato la presenza solamente di poche differenze dovute al livello di allenamento dei soggetti studiati.In both research laboratory and sport/clinical settings, it becomes very important to develop a \u2018multilateral approach\u2019 (qualitative and quantitative) to fully describe the individual behaviour of the centre of mass of the human body (BCOM) (i.e. the imaginary specific point at which the body behaves as if its masses were concentrated) over time and space. Consequently, the aim of this doctorate is to describe kinematic variables of the BCOM in varying locomotion conditions. This purpose, focusing on the BCOM as the investigation object fulfilling such a need, has been achieved through a different use of classic biomechanical procedures. In effect, two different studies were carried out. The first project sought: a) to develop a mathematical method (Fourier Series) which could describe and graphically represent each individual (subject or population) gait signature (i.e. Digital Locomotory Signature, a global index of the BCOM dynamics) during locomotion on a treadmill; b) to assess the symmetry (i.e. Symmetry Index) in each movement direction, along the BCOM trajectory, between the two stride phases; finally, c) to build up an initial comprehensive database of \u2018healthy values\u2019 (equation coefficients) in a set of different conditions considering gender (males versus females), age (from 6 to 65 years), gait (walking versus running), speed and gradient (level, uphill and downhill). Although only slight gender differences were found, human \u2018healthy\u2019 gait is rather asymmetrical. To be precise: 1) the lowest speeds have the most peculiar signature independently of age and gradient: indeed, these speeds are not so completely natural and common. However, if speed increases, the BCOM raises in such a way that its corresponding 3D contour becomes more regular; 2) right and left sides of the stride are quite asymmetrical (i.e. in the forward direction). Globally, this asymmetry is probably related both to anatomy (i.e. leg length) and which hand you use (i.e. right-handedness); 3) on average, the symmetry pattern is slightly lower in running gaits; and as expected, 4) young children and elderly adults are the most asymmetrical subjects, independently of testing conditions: while, during the early stages of life, this global asymmetry could be ascribed to the process of gait development, old age asymmetries are probably due to structural wearing down of the musculoskeletal system. Importantly, the mathematical methodology used here, by analysing even subtle changes in the 3D BCOM trajectory: a) characterizes its displacements over both time and space; b) quantitatively describes the individual gait signature; and c) represents the basis for the evaluation of gait anomaly/pathology (e.g. children with cerebral palsy, obese people and amputees). Finally, knowing the main biomechanical variables becomes fundamental both to fully describe the mechanics of walking and running and to extract and characterize the individual gait signature. In effect, our measurements (discrete method versus continuous mathematical function, and direct versus indirect measurement) of both simple and complex variables wholly confirm, complete and amplify previous literature data. Similarly to what previously demonstrated in horse performances, the second project tried: a) to verify both static anatomical and kinematic functional symmetries as important and relevant indicators of running economy (i.e. the reciprocal of metabolic cost) in humans featuring different running levels (i.e. occasional, skilled and top runners categorized primarily upon their best marathon time); b) to develop imaging based bi- and three-dimensional methods to analyse static symmetries recorded by Magnetic Resonance Imaging (lower limbs and pelvic area); c) to describe the kinematic symmetries defining both the Digital Locomotory Signature and the Symmetry Index; finally, d) to investigate running economy as a performance determinant. In effect, both the 2D/3D analysis of static symmetries highlight very few differences among runners; however, a strong relationship between ankle and knee areas has been underlined in all runners. Furthermore, independently of training ability: as expected, 1) the BCOM raises and lifts slightly as a function of running speed; 2) right and left steps are mostly asymmetrical in the forward direction and symmetrical in the vertical direction (i.e. combined action of gravity and ground reaction force); 3) differently to what was expected, slight differences have been found among runners. On the whole, the asymmetry is probably related both to anatomy and handedness. Other than that, no running economy differences were found. In conclusion, while a relationship between symmetries and running economy has not been found, significant results have however been underlined in each trial (static and dynamic symmetries). Finally, the deep investigation of both bioenergetics (treadmill versus over-ground) and biomechanics (simple/complex variables and spatial/temporal variability of the BCOM) of running has highlights only little (significant) differences among groups

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