Would those who need ISA, use it? Investigating the relationship between drivers' speed choice and their use of a voluntary ISA system

Intelligent Speed Adaptation (ISA) is one of the most promising new technologies for reducing the prevalence and severity of speed-related accidents. Such a system could be implemented in a number of ways, representing various "levels of control" over the driver. An ISA system could be purely advisory or could actually control the maximum speed of a vehicle. A compromise would be to introduce a system that allows a driver to choose when to engage ISA, thus creating a “voluntary” system. Whilst these voluntary systems are considered more acceptable by drivers, they will not offer safety benefits if they are not used by the driver. Two studies were carried out that examined the relationship between drivers’ reported and actual speeding behaviour, their propensity to engage a voluntary ISA system and their attitudes towards such a system. These studies were carried out in a driving simulator and in an instrumented vehicle. In both the studies, drivers’ propensity to exceed the speed limit was lowered when ISA was available but this effect was confined to the lower speed limits. In general, drivers engaged ISA for approximately half of their driving time, depending on the speed limit of the road and indeed, on the nature of the road and the surrounding traffic. This was particularly true in the field study where drivers were more inclined to “keep up with” the surrounding traffic. The results from the on-road study indicated that those drivers who considered ISA to be both a useful and pleasant system, were overall more likely to engage it. However, those drivers who confessed to enjoying exceeding the speed limit were less likely to use ISA. This is an important finding when considering the mechanisms for implementing ISA: those drivers who would benefit most would be less likely to use a voluntary system

Investigating Drivers’ Knowledge and Experience With the Anti-lock Braking System (ABS) Which Led to the Development and Evaluation of an Emergency Braking Training Exercise Using a Driving Simulator With Haptic Pedal Feedback

The purpose of this dissertation was to explore the extent to which drivers do or do not have knowledge of and experience with the anti-lock braking system (ABS) and then to explore the development and evaluation of a driving simulator task specifically designed to address emergency braking with haptic brake pedal feedback. The anti-lock braking system (ABS) was created to help drivers in emergency braking situations by preventing skidding and loss of control due to locked wheels. Vehicles with conventional (pre-ABS) brakes required the driver to “pump” the brake pedal, or to rapidly press and release the brake pedal, during an emergency braking situation. This act of rapidly pressing and releasing the brake pedal was difficult for many drivers. If the driver did not pump the brake pedal quickly enough, the result could cause the vehicle’s wheels to lock and the driver to lose control of steering and braking of the vehicle. ABS automated the pumping action for the driver by holding and releasing the brake pressure to prevent the wheels from locking and skidding. Since ABS quickly holds and releases the brake pressure, the driver experiences a vibration or “thumping” in the pedal when ABS is engaged (Kahane, 1994). This vibration or “thumping” can be confusing for the driver. The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) discovered that drivers did not understand the purpose of ABS, did not know when ABS was functioning, or if their vehicle was even equipped with ABS (Mazzae, Garrott & Snyder, 2001). In the US, teenage drivers have an increased risk of being involved in crashes. To address the increased risk of teen crashes, post-license advanced driving programs have emerged. The first study within this dissertation gained teenagers’ perspective of a half day post-license driving program focused on a hands-on introduction to emergency braking, skid recovery and the dangers of distracted driving on a closed-road track, the Guard Your Life (GYL) Challenge program. The teenagers (N=134) completed a survey immediately following the program and a subset (N=50) of those teen completed a phone interview three months later. The open-ended survey and phone interview items reflected the program’s key concepts of emergency braking, skid recovery and the dangers of distracted driving. During the follow-up phone interview, the majority of teenagers reported using the skills experienced and half of the participants who participated in the phone interview reported using skills that they learned to avoid a crash, where ABS braking was the most common skill used. Almost all teenagers reported anticipating or changing their driving behaviors, specifically by reducing distractions, having a heightened awareness and changing their driving position. The survey and follow-up phone interview results suggested that the teenagers benefited from the skills introduced and, from the teenagers’ perspective, has helped them avoid crashes. The results of the study also suggested that teen drivers do not understand or have experience activating ABS prior to the program. During study I, it was observed that the parents of the teenage drivers were engaged during the classroom portion of the study and the majority of the parents stayed to watch their teen drive on the track. Study II gained parents’ perspectives while observing their teens’ involvement in the GYL post-license driving program which focused on a hands-on introduction to emergency braking, skid recovery and the dangers of distracted driving. Parents (N=134) completed a survey after the program, and for comparison purposes, the teens (N=164) also completed a survey at the end of the same program. While the parents only observed the program, the results revealed that most learned useful information and would consider additional training for themselves. Interestingly, though 85% of the parents reported experiencing ABS, only 53% of the parents reported teaching their teen about ABS, with 87% of those parents discussing ABS and only 13% of parents providing hands-on practice to their teen. Almost all teens and parents reported anticipating changing their driving behaviors, specifically by reducing distractions, having a heightened awareness while driving and changing their driving/seating position. These results suggested that parents benefited from simply observing the class and though many parents reported experiencing ABS, the lack of hands-on practice the parents reported providing to their teen may suggest that some of these parents may not understand ABS. In addition to evaluating drivers’ views of the GYL program, study III aimed to gain the views of both teen and adult drivers’ views of full day car control classes designed to address defensive driving skills through both classroom instruction and hands-on practice on a closed-road track. To obtain the views from teenagers (N=80) and adults (N=177), both groups completed a survey immediately after their classes, and a subset of the adults (N=64) completed a phone interview six months later. Results from the teenage and adult surveys showed that both groups reported the most important topics learned during the car control class were skid recovery, using ABS and looking where the car should go. Both teenagers and adults reported that they plan to significantly change their driving behaviors, especially those concerning seating, hand and mirror positions. Overall, after the class, the teenagers and adults felt “moderately competent” in their ability to perform the exercises practiced during the class, which increased from the rating of “not competent” prior to the class. The results from the phone interview with the adults suggest that ABS braking was the most important topic to them six months later. ABS braking was also the single-most reported skill used after the class and the self-identified skill most used to avoid a crash. The phone interview showed that the adults accurately predicted their use of the behaviors (seating position, vision, distractions, etc.) and turned those behaviors taught during the class into habits of their daily driving. The results from the teenage and adult surveys, as well as the phone interview with the adults, suggested that the participants benefitted from the knowledge and skills gained from the one-day car control class. Like the teens in study I, the adults reported using ABS braking the most on the road after the class of all of the skills addressed, thus adult drivers may not understand or have experience activating ABS prior to the class. Study IV narrowed the focus to determine high school students’ knowledge and experience with ABS. High school participants (N=60) with a driver’s license were recruited from science classes to complete the survey. The results revealed that only 22% of the teens knew what ABS stood for and 23% could describe the purpose of ABS. Only 33% of the teens reported using ABS and 15% reported that they had practiced using ABS. Interestingly, there were no statistical differences in knowledge or experience with ABS between teens that had taken driver’s education and those who had not. The results of the survey found the majority of teen drivers did not have knowledge of and experience with ABS. This study suggested that teen drivers, regardless of driver’s education experience, did not have knowledge of or experience with ABS. Understanding that not all drivers may have knowledge and experience with ABS, Study V investigated how a driver’s knowledge and experience with ABS effected performance braking in a vehicle. Drivers (N=79) were recruited from adult car control classes which focused on defensive driving skills, including both classroom and behind-the-wheel instruction on a closed-road course. One focus of the class was activation of ABS, which was designed to help drivers during emergency braking situations. In the classroom, participants learned what ABS is as well as how and when it functions. On the closed-road course, participants learned how to activate ABS and how the system feels when it is activated. The goal of this study was to understand how knowledge of and experience with ABS prior to the class relates to a driver’s ability to activate ABS. The participants’ ability to activate ABS was evaluated by the driving instructors using a behaviorally anchored rating scale with five ratings, ranging from 1 representing no ABS activation to 5 corresponding to full ABS activation throughout the entire stop. Participants completed a survey before and after the class to gain an understanding of their knowledge of and experience with ABS. The results found significant differences in braking performance between participants with and without prior knowledge of the feel of ABS when activated, practice activating ABS, and training, both with and without an ABS braking component. Most of the drivers who had practice or training activating ABS were able to fully activate ABS on their first try, outperforming all other participants. These results suggested that drivers could benefit from practice focusing on emergency braking with ABS. Study VI was a smaller study within study V, where participants (N=17) recruited from the adult car control classes. This study aimed to investigate if electrodermal activity (EDA) varied while drivers were completing the ABS exercise on the track. Participants wore Empatica E4 devices on both wrists to measure EDA. The EDA data were analyzed through skin conductance level (SCL), but the results showed no significant differences in SCL values between the right and left wrists, nor was there any consistency for which wrist had higher SCL values. The results from this study suggested that for an ABS braking task, SCL may not be the ideal measure of EDA. Not all drivers have access to training or an experienced driver to help them practice activating ABS, thus a novel driving simulator with haptic brake pedal feedback and interactive exercise Pedals Emergency Stop© for drivers to practice emergency braking with ABS feedback was developed. The interactive exercise displayed images of a gas and brake pedal with colored target zones. The interactive exercise began with a gas pedal target that oscillates up and down, then a stationary brake pedal target appears at the very top of the brake pedal at the same time a “Stop” prompt was played. Participants were instructed to press the brake pedal as quickly as possible to move the brake indicator into the target zone and hold the indicator in the target zone for three tones. In addition, when the participant was in the target zone haptic brake pedal feedback was provided. After each braking target, the participants were presented with feedback regarding if they passed or failed that trial. To pass, participants were required to press the brake pedal fast and hard enough as well as hold the brake indicator in the target zone for three tones. If the participant did not pass the trial, they were presented with advice to improve their performance, either to “press harder and faster” or to “hold longer”. During the initial evaluation of the emergency braking practice, participants (N=63) had 15 trials and were grouped base upon their knowledge and experience feeling ABS activate. The results found that 85% of participants were able to “pass” for the first time within the first four trials, with an average of three trials to “pass”. All participants in this study received a “pass” a minimum of two times during the practice. There were no differences in performance observed between participants with previous knowledge and experience feeling ABS versus those who did not have prior knowledge and experience with ABS. Also, participants thought they had enough practice, that the practice was a practical tool, and recommended the training for new drivers, refresher training, as well as evaluating fitness to drive. The results of this study suggested that the emergency braking practice using the Pedals Emergency Stop© interactive exercise may be an effective tool for drivers to practice emergency braking with haptic ABS feedback. As a result of the initial evaluation of the emergency braking practice, criteria to pass the emergency braking practice was proposed. The Pedals Emergency Stop© interactive exercise was divided into a practice with four trials and three tests with four trials each. The criteria to pass the emergency braking practice was passing three out of four trials within one of the tests. The final study within this dissertation aimed to understand if the emergency braking practice on the simulator generalized to driving in a vehicle on a closed road course as well as to evaluate the proposed criteria to pass the simulator practice. Participants (N=69) were grouped according to their previous experience feeling ABS activate as well as if they completed the simulator practice. Participants in the simulator group completed the emergency braking practice with the Pedals Emergency Stop© interactive exercise for a total of 16 trials making up the practice and three tests. All participants attempted to activate ABS on the track, where their performance braking was rated by a professional driving instructor using the behaviorally anchored rating scale developed in the study V which consisted of five ratings, ranging from 1 representing no ABS activation to 5 corresponding to full ABS activation throughout the entire stop. Participants completed five attempts on the track, all at 35mph. This speed was chosen because it is the speed where most crashes occur. Since 97% of the participants that completed the simulator practice passed the practice, the results revealed that the criteria to pass three out of four trials was representative of a participant that was successful passing the Pedals Emergency Stop©. There were no significant differences in braking performance ratings on the track between participants that had completed the simulator practice and those who had not. This was also true for participants with and without prior experience feeling ABS activate, where no differences were found in performance braking rating on the track. Though braking performance on the track was not influenced by the simulator practice, 74% of the participants that completed the simulator practice thought they benefitted and/or their performance on the track was improved as a result of the emergency braking practice on the simulator with Pedals Emergency Stop©. Though the speed of 35mph was selected because it is the speed where most crashes occur, future studies should include multiple speeds, both lower (35-45mph) and higher speeds (50-60mph). Study V observed that speeds between 35 and 50mph corresponded to drivers learning how hard and how quickly to press the brake pedal. As the speeds increased over 50mph, the stopping distance increased, and drivers learned to maintain brake pedal position and pressure until the vehicle came to a complete stop. Future research should explore the Pedals Emergency Stop© interactive exercise with novice teen drivers, who make up a disproportionate number of fatal crashes for their small percentage of the driving population (NHTSA, 2018b). Since the majority of teenage drivers’ crashes can be attributed to driver error, which includes recognition errors (visual scanning errors, distraction), decision errors (following distance, vehicle speed relative to conditions), and performance errors (losing control; Curry, Hafetz, Kallan, Winston, & Durbin, 2011), the emergency braking practice on the simulator could help to address decision and performance related braking errors. Driver’s education is commonly included in the graduated driving license process (NHTSA, 2017a) and integrating the emergency braking practice on the simulator with driver’s education may help novice teen drivers understand emergency braking as well as the haptic brake pedal feedback associated with ABS activation through the repetition of trials as part of the Pedals Emergency Stop© interactive exercise. As the automotive industry shifts focus to autonomous vehicles, the driving task will be eliminated and all individuals within the vehicle will become passengers. It is known from Study VII that the haptic feedback from ABS in not only in the brake pedal, but can be felt through the entire vehicle. Future autonomous vehicle users may experience the feedback from ABS as passengers. If the user does not understand the feedback nor given information about what the feedback is doing, this could lead to the user losing trust in the autonomous vehicle. Future autonomous vehicles should consider the impact that ABS feedback could have on user trust and methods to provide information to users to help communicate that the feedback back is part of normal emergency braking operation

Novice Driver Training Results and Experience with a PC Based Simulator

This paper reports on work accomplished subsequent to a pilot study that was presented at the 2001 conference. This current study will eventually involve the training of over 500 novice drivers, and subsequent comparison of real-world accident and violation rates of the simulator trained group with a traditionally trained control group of demographically matched novice drivers. This paper describes the simulator training system and presents some training data for 111 student subjects collected at three sites involving different simulator configurations. These configurations include a desktop system with a single monitor narrow field of view display, a desktop system with wide field of view display and a cab with wide field of view display. The results include performance measures, a measure of simulator sickness and experience involved in implementing driver-training simulators in the high school environment

Motorcycle safety research project: Interim summary report 3: training and licensing interventions for risk taking and hazard perception for motorcyclists

Motorcycle trauma is a serious road safety issue in Queensland and throughout Australia. In 2009, Queensland Transport (later Transport and Main Roads or TMR) appointed CARRS-Q to provide a three-year program of Road Safety Research Services for Motorcycle Rider Safety. Funding for this research originated from the Motor Accident Insurance Commission. This program of research was undertaken to produce knowledge to assist TMR to improve motorcycle safety by further strengthening the licensing and training system to make learner riders safer by developing a pre-learner package (Deliverable 1), and by evaluating the QRide CAP program to ensure that it is maximally effective and contributes to the best possible training for new riders (Deliverable 2). The focus of this report is Deliverable 3 of the overall program of research. It identifies potential new licensing components that will reduce the incidence of risky riding and improve higher-order cognitive skills in new riders

Simulators, driver education and disadvantaged groups: A scoping review

This paper examines simulators to deliver driver education programs for two very different populations (a) those who have specific impairments or intellectual disabilities and (b) those who may suffer disadvantage associated with their ethnicity. To do this we addressed two research questions (a) What role, if any, can simulation play as an education and/or training intervention for individuals disadvantaged because of individually-orientated concerns such as intellectual impairment or ADHD? (b) What role, if any, can simulation play as an education and/or training intervention for those who are disadvantaged because of their indigenous ethnicity? Technological developments have enabled the incorporation of driving simulators into driver education programs. A review of major databases using keywords identified 2,420 records. After duplicates were removed and screening occurred, thirteen studies were included in the review. The disadvantaged populations for the driver education initiatives that incorporated a simulator were very specific (e.g. intellectual disabilities) with no interventions for those disadvantaged because of ethnicity. A second search identified six papers that discussed interventions for indigenous populations. None of these interventions had a simulator component. The review highlights the need for high quality empirical research in the area of simulators, driver education and disadvantaged groups in order to inform policy development within this area. While there are some preliminary results indicating potential benefits, there is limited research evidence for an initiative of this type making it difficult to develop evidence based policy and practice. Therefore, when these types of initiatives are introduced, they need to be evaluated</p

Assessing Pedestrian Safety Conditions on Campus

Pedestrian-related crashes are a significant safety issue in the United States and cause considerable amounts of deaths and economic cost. Pedestrian safety is an issue that must be uniquely evaluated in a college campus, where pedestrian volumes are dense. The objective of this research is to identify issues at specific locations around UCF and suggest solutions for improvement. To address this problem, a survey that identifies pedestrian safety issues and locations is distributed to UCF students and staff, and an evaluation of drivers reactions to pedestrian to vehicle (P2V) warning systems is studied through the use of a NADS MiniSim driving simulator. The survey asks participants to identify problem intersections around campus and other issues as pedestrians or bicyclists in the UCF area. Univariate probit models were created from the survey data to identify which factors contribute to pedestrian safety issues, based off the pedestrian\u27s POV and the driver\u27s POV. The models indicated that the more one is exposed to traffic via walking, biking, and driving to campus contributes to less safe experiences. The models also show that higher concerns with drivers not yielding, unsafety of crossing the intersections, and the number of locations to cross, indicate less safe pedestrian experiences from the point of view of pedestrians and drivers. A promising solution for pedestrian safety is Pedestrian to Vehicle (P2V) communication. This study simulates P2V connectivity using a NADS MiniSim Driving Simulator to study the effectiveness of the warning system on drivers. According to the results, the P2V warning system significantly reduced the number of crashes in the tested pre-crash scenarios by 88%. Particularly, the P2V warning system can help decrease the driver\u27s reaction time as well as impact velocity if the crash were to occur

Evaluation of a Simulator Based, Novice Driver Risk Awareness Training Program

An advanced training program on risk perception was developed and evaluated in a driving simulator. This training program included two elements. The first one was a PC-based Risk Awareness and Perception Program (RAPT) that had been developed and evaluated in several studies by researches at the Human Performance Lab within the last several years. Plan views of risky scenarios were used to explain to participants the location of potential hazards. The second element of the training (SIMRAPT) was newly developed for this study and used the portable low-cost driving simulator Drive Square Simulation System to train risk perception skills while the participant actually drove a real car in a virtual environment. A head mounted display was used to present the virtual world. Feedback was given to participants when they failed to scan appropriately for hazards. Twelve novice drivers served as experimental group and were trained with the combined RAPT/SIMRAPT training program. Twelve other novice drivers were given training not relevant to hazard anticipation and served as the control group. After training, both groups were evaluated on an advanced driving simulator (different from the Drive Square Simulation System used in SIMRAPT training) and the eye movements of both groups of drivers were measured. The drivers’ score was based on whether or not their eye-fixations indicated recognition of potential risks in different driving situations. The evaluation included eight scenarios used in the RAPT/SIMRAPT training (near transfer scenarios) and eight scenarios that were not used in the training (far transfer scenarios). The results indicated that trained drivers are more likely than untrained drivers to fixate on regions where potential risks might appear. Further the evaluation indicates that the training effect of the combined training using both the PC (RAPT) and a low-cost driving simulator (SIMRAPT) is larger than for training programs that only use the PC, though not significantly so

Exploring, developing and evaluating in-car HMI to support appropriate use of automated cars

Commercial cars are increasingly equipped with automated functions to increase traffic safety and driver comfort. However, in order for these benefits to actually arise, it is crucial that the automation is used appropriately. This means that the automation should only be used in traffic situations and conditions that it was designed for (i.e. its Operational Design Domain or ODD). If the automation is used outside its ODD, traffic safety can be jeopardized. Alternatively, if it is not used within its ODD, potential benefits of the automation are lost. To be able to use the automation appropriately however, drivers need to have an accurate understanding of its functions, operation, capabilities and limitations. This research first explores how drivers are currently supported in understanding and appropriately using automated car functions. This is achieved through nation-wide surveys among car buyers and car sellers, and a review of the HMI (Human Machine Interface) in car currently available partially automated cars. Based on these results, an adaptive Digital In-Car Tutor is proposed to support driver’s understanding and appropriate use of car automation. An observation study among driving instructors is conducted to gain inspiration for such a Digital In-Car Tutor and investigate tutoring strategies in a real-world and driving related context. Finally, the results of all studies are used to design and evaluate an adaptive Digital In-car Tutor prototype. In conclusion, this thesis reveals that drivers are currently insufficiently supported in understanding and appropriately using partially automated cars. It is crucial that immediate and thorough measures are taken to avoid a negative impact on both traffic safety and the adoption of car automation. Our research further shows that a Digital In-car Tutor that is adaptive to the (complexity of the) driving situation positively affects appropriate automation use. While additional research is necessary with regards to the practical implementation, this research provides a solid base for the improvement of in-car driver support aimed at helping drivers to understand and appropriately use their car’s automation

Investigation of smart work zone technologies using mixed simulator and field studies

Safety is the top concern in transportation, especially in work zones, as work zones deviate from regular driving environment and driver behavior is very different. In order to protect workers and create a safer work zone environment, new technologies are proposed by agencies and deployed to work zones, however, some are without scientific study before deployment. Therefore, quantitative studies need to be conducted to show the effectiveness of technologies. Driving simulator is a safe and cost-effective way to test effectiveness of new designs and compare different configurations. Field study is another scientific way of testing, as it provides absolute validity, while simulator study provides relative validity. The synergy of field and simulator studies construct a precise experiment as field study calibrates simulator design and validates simulator results. Two main projects, Evaluation of Automated Flagger Assistance Devices (AFADs), and Evaluation of Green Lights on Truck-Mounted Attenuator (TMA), are discussed in this dissertation to illustrate the investigation of smart work zone technologies using mixed simulator and field studies, along with one simulator project investigating interaction between human driven car and autonomous truck platoon in work zones. Both field and simulator studies indicated that AFADs improved stationary work zone safety by enhancing visibility, isolating workers from immediate traffic, and conveying clear guidance message to traffic. The results of green light on TMAs implied an inverse relationship between visibility/awareness of work zone and arrow board recognition/easy on eyes, but did not show if any of the light configurations is superior. Results anticipated for autonomous truck platoon in work zones are drivers behave more uniformly after being educated about the meaning of signage displayed on the back of truck, and performance measured with signage would be more preferable than those without signage. Applications of statistics are extension of studies, including experimental design, survey design, and data analysis. Data obtained from AFAD and Green Light projects were utilized to illustrate the methodologies of data analysis and model building, which incorporated simulator data, biofeedback and survey response to interpret the relationship among driver perspective and mental status, and driving behavior. From the studies conducted, it could be concluded that mixed simulator and field study is a good fit for smart work zone technologies investigation. Simulators provide a safe environment, flexibility and cost-effectiveness, while field studies calibrate and validate simulator setup and its results. The collaboration of two forms of study generates legitimate and convincing results for investigations. Applying statistical methodologies into transportation simulator and field studies is a good way to make experiment and survey design more rational, and the statistical methods are applicable for further data analysis.Includes bibliographical reference

License to Supervise:Influence of Driving Automation on Driver Licensing

To use highly automated vehicles while a driver remains responsible for safe driving, places new – yet demanding, requirements on the human operator. This is because the automation creates a gap between drivers’ responsibility and the human capabilities to take responsibility, especially for unexpected or time-critical transitions of control. This gap is not being addressed by current practises of driver licensing. Based on literature review, this research collects drivers’ requirements to enable safe transitions in control attuned to human capabilities. This knowledge is intended to help system developers and authorities to identify the requirements on human operators to (re)take responsibility for safe driving after automation