Porting the Sisal functional language to distributed-memory multiprocessors

Parallel computing is becoming increasingly ubiquitous in recent years. The sizes of application problems continuously increase for solving real-world problems. Distributed-memory multiprocessors have been regarded as a viable architecture of scalable and economical design for building large scale parallel machines. While these parallel machines can provide computational capabilities, programming such large-scale machines is often very difficult due to many practical issues including parallelization, data distribution, workload distribution, and remote memory latency. This thesis proposes to solve the programmability and performance issues of distributed-memory machines using the Sisal functional language. The programs written in Sisal will be automatically parallelized, scheduled and run on distributed-memory multiprocessors with no programmer intervention. Specifically, the proposed approach consists of the following steps. Given a program written in Sisal, the front end Sisal compiler generates a directed acyclic graph(DAG) to expose parallelism in the program. The DAG is partitioned and scheduled based on loop parallelism. The scheduled DAG is then translated to C programs with machine specific parallel constructs. The parallel C programs are finally compiled by the target machine specific compilers to generate executables. A distributed-memory parallel machine, the 80-processor ETL EM-X, has been chosen to perform experiments. The entire procedure has been implemented on the EMX multiprocessor. Four problems are selected for experiments: bitonic sorting, search, dot-product and Fast Fourier Transform. Preliminary execution results indicate that automatic parallelization of the Sisal programs based on loop parallelism is effective. The speedup for these four problems is ranging from 17 to 60 on a 64-processor EM-X. Preliminary experimental results further indicate that programming distributed-memory multiprocessors using a functional language indeed frees the programmers from lowl-evel programming details while allowing them to focus on algorithmic performance improvement

Doctor of Philosophy

dissertationHigh-performance supercomputers on the Top500 list are commonly designed around commodity CPUs. Most of the codes executed on these machines are message-passing codes using the message-passing toolkit (MPI). Thus it makes sense to look at these machines from a holistic systems architecture perspective and consider optimizations to commodity processors that make them more efficient in message-passing architectures. Described herein is a new User-Level Notification (ULN) architecture that significantly improves message-passing performance. The architecture integrates a simultaneous multithreaded (SMT) processor with a user-level network interface (NI) that can directly control the execution scheduling of threads on the processor. By allowing the network interface to control the execution of message handling code at the user level, the operating system (OS) related overhead for handling interrupts and user code dispatch related to notifications is eliminated. By using an SMT processor, message handling can be performed in one thread concurrent to user computation in other threads, thus most of the overhead of executing message handlers can be hidden. This dissertation presents measurements showing the OS overheads related to message-passing are significant in modern architectures and describes a new architecture that significantly reduces these overheads. On a communication-intensive real-world application, the ULN architecture provides a 50.9% performance improvement over a more traditional OS-based NIC and a 5.29-31.9% improvement over a best-of-class user-level NIC due to the user-level notifications

Thread Scheduling Mechanisms for Multiple-Context Parallel Processors

Scheduling tasks to efficiently use the available processor resources is crucial to minimizing the runtime of applications on shared-memory parallel processors. One factor that contributes to poor processor utilization is the idle time caused by long latency operations, such as remote memory references or processor synchronization operations. One way of tolerating this latency is to use a processor with multiple hardware contexts that can rapidly switch to executing another thread of computation whenever a long latency operation occurs, thus increasing processor utilization by overlapping computation with communication. Although multiple contexts are effective for tolerating latency, this effectiveness can be limited by memory and network bandwidth, by cache interference effects among the multiple contexts, and by critical tasks sharing processor resources with less critical tasks. This thesis presents techniques that increase the effectiveness of multiple contexts by intelligently scheduling threads to make more efficient use of processor pipeline, bandwidth, and cache resources. This thesis proposes thread prioritization as a fundamental mechanism for directing the thread schedule on a multiple-context processor. A priority is assigned to each thread either statically or dynamically and is used by the thread scheduler to decide which threads to load in the contexts, and to decide which context to switch to on a context switch. We develop a multiple-context model that integrates both cache and network effects, and shows how thread prioritization can both maintain high processor utilization, and limit increases in critical path runtime caused by multithreading. The model also shows that in order to be effective in bandwidth limited applications, thread prioritization must be extended to prioritize memory requests. We show how simple hardware can prioritize the running of threads in the multiple contexts, and the issuing of requests to both the local memory and the network. Simulation experiments show how thread prioritization is used in a variety of applications. Thread prioritization can improve the performance of synchronization primitives by minimizing the number of processor cycles wasted in spinning and devoting more cycles to critical threads. Thread prioritization can be used in combination with other techniques to improve cache performance and minimize cache interference between different working sets in the cache. For applications that are critical path limited, thread prioritization can improve performance by allowing processor resources to be devoted preferentially to critical threads. These experimental results show that thread prioritization is a mechanism that can be used to implement a wide range of scheduling policies

Master of Science

thesisOperating system (OS) kernel extensions, particularly device drivers, are one of the primary sources of vulnerabilities in commodity OS kernels. Vulnerabilities in driver code are often exploited by attackers, leading to attacks like privilege escalation, denial-of-service, and arbitrary code execution. Today, kernel extensions are fully trusted and operate within the core kernel without any form of isolation. But history suggests that this trust is often misplaced, emphasizing a need for some isolation in the kernel. We develop a new framework for isolating device drivers in the Linux kernel. Our work builds on three fundamental principles: (1) strong isolation of the driver code; (2) reuse of existing driver while making no or minimal changes to the source; and (3) achieving same or better performance compared to the nonisolated driver. In comparison to existing driver isolation schemes like driver virtual machines and user-level device driver implementations, our work strives to avoid modifying existing code and implements an I/O path without incurring substantial performance overhead. We demonstrate our approach by isolating a unmodified driver for a null block device in the Linux kernel, achieving near-native throughput for block sizes ranging from 512B to 256KB and outperforming the nonisolated driver for block sizes of 1MB and higher

Compiling and optimizing spreadsheets for FPGA and multicore execution

Thesis (M. Eng.)--Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Dept. of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, 2007."September 2007."Includes bibliographical references (p. 102-104).A major barrier to developing systems on multicore and FPGA chips is an easy-to-use development environment. This thesis presents the RhoZeta spreadsheet compiler and Catalyst optimization system for programming multiprocessors and FPGAs. Any spreadsheet frontend may be extended to work with RhoZeta's multiple interpreters and behavioral abstraction mechanisms. RhoZeta synchronizes a variety of cell interpreters acting on a global memory space. RhoZeta can also compile a group of cells to multithreaded C or Verilog. The result is an easy-to-use interface for programming multicore microprocessors and FPGAs. A spreadsheet environment presents parallelism and locality issues of modem hardware directly to the user and allows for a simple global memory synchronization model. Catalyst is a spreadsheet graph rewriting system based on performing behaviorally invariant guarded atomic actions while a system is being interpreted by RhoZeta. A number of optimization macros were developed to perform speculation, resource sharing and propagation of static assignments through a circuit. Parallelization of a 64-bit serial leading-zero-counter is demonstrated with Catalyst. Fault tolerance macros were also developed in Catalyst to protect against dynamic faults and to offset costs associated with testing semiconductors for static defects. A model for partitioning, placing and profiling spreadsheet execution in a heterogeneous hardware environment is also discussed. The RhoZeta system has been used to design several multithreaded and FPGA applications including a RISC emulator and a MIDI controlled modular synthesizer.by Amir Hirsch.M.Eng

Runahead threads

Los temas de investigación sobre multithreading han ganado mucho interés en la arquitectura de computadores con la aparición de procesadores multihilo y multinucleo. Los procesadores SMT (Simultaneous Multithreading) son uno de estos nuevos paradigmas, combinando la capacidad de emisión de múltiples instrucciones de los procesadores superscalares con la habilidad de explotar el paralelismo a nivel de hilos (TLP). Así, la principal característica de los procesadores SMT es ejecutar varios hilos al mismo tiempo para incrementar la utilización de las etapas del procesador mediante la compartición de recursos.Los recursos compartidos son el factor clave de los procesadores SMT, ya que esta característica conlleva tratar con importantes cuestiones pues los hilos también compiten por estos recursos en el núcleo del procesador. Si bien distintos grupos de aplicaciones se benefician de disponer de SMT, las diferentes propiedades de los hilos ejecutados pueden desbalancear la asignación de recursos entre los mismos, disminuyendo los beneficios de la ejecución multihilo. Por otro lado, el problema con la memoria está aún presente en los procesadores SMT. Estos procesadores alivian algunos de los problemas de latencia provocados por la lentitud de la memoria con respecto a la CPU. Sin embargo, hilos con grandes cargas de trabajo y con altas tasas de fallos en las caches son unas de las mayores dificultades de los procesadores SMT. Estos hilos intensivos en memoria tienden a crear importantes problemas por la contención de recursos. Por ejemplo, pueden llegar a bloquear recursos críticos debido a operaciones de larga latencia impidiendo no solo su ejecución, sino el progreso de la ejecución de los otros hilos y, por tanto, degradando el rendimiento general del sistema.El principal objetivo de esta tesis es aportar soluciones novedosas a estos problemas y que mejoren el rendimiento de los procesadores SMT. Para conseguirlo, proponemos los Runahead Threads (RaT) aplicando una ejecución especulativa basada en runahead. RaT es un mecanismo alternativo a las políticas previas de gestión de recursos las cuales usualmente restringían a los hilos intensivos en memoria para conseguir más productividad.La idea clave de RaT es transformar un hilo intensivo en memoria en un hilo ligero en el uso de recursos que progrese especulativamente. Así, cuando un hilo sufre de un acceso de larga latencia, RaT transforma dicho hilo en un hilo de runahead mientras dicho fallo está pendiente. Los principales beneficios de esta simple acción son varios. Mientras un hilo está en runahead, éste usa los diferentes recursos compartidos sin monopolizarlos o limitarlos con respecto a los otros hilos. Al mismo tiempo, esta ejecución especulativa realiza prebúsquedas a memoria que se solapan con el fallo principal, por tanto explotando el paralelismo a nivel de memoria y mejorando el rendimiento.RaT añade muy poco hardware extra y complejidad en los procesadores SMT con respecto a su implementación. A través de un mecanismo de checkpoint y lógica de control adicional, podemos dotar a los contextos hardware con la capacidad de ejecución en runahead. Por medio de RaT, contribuímos a aliviar simultaneamente dos problemas en el contexto de los procesadores SMT. Primero, RaT reduce el problema de los accesos de larga latencia en los SMT mediante el paralelismo a nivel de memoria (MLP). Un hilo prebusca datos en paralelo en vez de estar parado debido a un fallo de L2 mejorando su rendimiento individual. Segundo, RaT evita que los hilos bloqueen recursos bajo fallos de larga latencia. RaT asegura que el hilo intensivo en memoria recicle más rápido los recursos compartidos que usa debido a la naturaleza de la ejecución especulativa.La principal limitación de RaT es que los hilos especulativos pueden ejecutar instrucciones extras cuando no realizan prebúsqueda e innecesariamente consumir recursos de ejecución en el procesador SMT. Este inconveniente resulta en hilos de runahead ineficientes pues no contribuyen a la ganancia de rendimiento e incrementan el consumo de energía debido al número extra de instrucciones especulativas. Por consiguiente, en esta tesis también estudiamos diferentes soluciones dirigidas a solventar esta desventaja del mecanismo RaT. El resultado es un conjunto de soluciones complementarias para mejorar la eficiencia de RaT en términos de consumo de potencia y gasto energético.Por un lado, mejoramos la eficiencia de RaT aplicando ciertas técnicas basadas en el análisis semántico del código ejecutado por los hilos en runahead. Proponemos diferentes técnicas que analizan y controlan la utilidad de ciertos patrones de código durante la ejecución en runahead. Por medio de un análisis dinámico, los hilos en runahead supervisan la utilidad de ejecutar los bucles y subrutinas dependiendo de las oportunidades de prebúsqueda. Así, RaT decide cual de estas estructuras de programa ejecutar dependiendo de la información de utilidad obtenida, decidiendo entre parar o saltar el bucle o la subrutina para reducir el número de las instrucciones no útiles. Entre las técnicas propuestas, conseguimos reducir las instrucciones especulativas y la energía gastada mientras obtenemos rendimientos similares a la técnica RaT original.Por otro lado, también proponemos lo que denominamos hilos de runahead eficientes. Esta propuesta se basa en una técnica más fina que cubre todo el rango de ejecución en runahead, independientemente de las características del programa ejecutado. La idea principal es averiguar "cuando" y "durante cuanto" un hilo en runahead debe ser ejecutado prediciendo lo que denominamos distancia útil de runahead. Los resultados muestran que la mejor de estas propuestas basadas en la predicción de la distancia de runahead reducen significativamente el número de instrucciones extras así como también el consumo de potencia. Asimismo, conseguimos mantener los beneficios de rendimiento de los hilos en runahead, mejorando de esta forma la eficiencia energética de los procesadores SMT usando el mecanismo RaT.La evolución de RaT desarrollada durante toda esta investigación nos proporciona no sólo una propuesta orientada a un mayor rendimiento sino también una forma eficiente de usar los recursos compartidos en los procesadores SMT en presencia de operaciones de memoria de larga latencia.Dado que los diseños SMT en el futuro estarán orientados a optimizar una combinación de rendimiento individual en las aplicaciones, la productividad y el consumo de energía, los mecanismos basados en RaT aquí propuestos son interesantes opciones que proporcionan un mejor balance de rendimiento y energía que las propuestas previas en esta área.Research on multithreading topics has gained a lot of interest in the computer architecture community due to new commercial multithreaded and multicore processors. Simultaneous Multithreading (SMT) is one of these relatively new paradigms, which combines the multiple instruction issue features of superscalar processors with the ability of multithreaded architectures to exploit thread level parallelism (TLP). The main feature of SMT processors is to execute multiple threads that increase the utilization of the pipeline by sharing many more resources than in other types of processors.Shared resources are the key of simultaneous multithreading, what makes the technique worthwhile.This feature also entails important challenges to deal with because threads also compete for resources in the processor core. On the one hand, although certain types and mixes of applications truly benefit from SMT, the different features of threads can unbalance the resource allocation among threads, diminishing the benefit of multithreaded execution. On the other hand, the memory wall problem is still present in these processors. SMT processors alleviate some of the latency problems arisen by main memory's slowness relative to the CPUs. Nevertheless, threads with high cache miss rates that use large working sets are one of the major pitfalls of SMT processors. These memory intensive threads tend to use processor and memory resources poorly creating the highest resource contention problems. Memory intensive threads can clog up shared resources due to long latency memory operations without making progress on a SMT processor, thereby hindering overall system performance.The main goal of this thesis is to alleviate these shortcomings on SMT scenarios. To accomplish this, the key contribution of this thesis is the application of the paradigm of Runahead execution in the design of multithreaded processors by Runahead Threads (RaT). RaT shows to be a promising alternative to prior SMT resource management mechanisms which usually restrict memory bound threads in order to get higher throughputs.The idea of RaT is to transform a memory intensive thread into a light-consumer resource thread by allowing that thread to progress speculatively. Therefore, as soon as a thread undergoes a long latency load, RaT transforms the thread to a runahead thread while it has that long latency miss outstanding. The main benefits of this simple action performed by RaT are twofold. While being a runahead thread, this thread uses the different shared resources without monopolizing or limiting the available resources for other threads. At the same time, this fast speculative thread issues prefetches that overlap other memory accesses with the main miss, thereby exploiting the memory level parallelism.Regarding implementation issues, RaT adds very little extra hardware cost and complexity to an existing SMT processor. Through a simple checkpoint mechanism and little additional control logic, we can equip the hardware contexts with the runahead thread capability. Therefore, by means of runahead threads, we contribute to alleviate simultaneously the two shortcomings in the context of SMT processor improving the performance. First, RaT alleviates the long latency load problem on SMT processors by exposing memory level parallelism (MLP). A thread prefetches data in parallel (if MLP is available) improving its individual performance rather than be stalled on an L2 miss. Second, RaT prevents threads from clogging resources on long latency loads. RaT ensures that the L2-missing thread recycles faster the shared resources it uses by the nature of runahead speculative execution. This avoids memory intensive threads clogging the important processor resources up.The main limitation of RaT though is that runahead threads can execute useless instructions and unnecessarily consume execution resources on the SMT processor when there is no prefetching to be exploited. This drawback results in inefficient runahead threads which do not contribute to the performance gain and increase dynamic energy consumption due to the number of extra speculatively executed instructions. Therefore, we also propose different solutions aimed at this major disadvantage of the Runahead Threads mechanism. The result of the research on this line is a set of complementary solutions to enhance RaT in terms of power consumption and energy efficiency.On the one hand, code semantic-aware Runahead threads improve the efficiency of RaT using coarse-grain code semantic analysis at runtime. We provide different techniques that analyze the usefulness of certain code patterns during runahead thread execution. The code patterns selected to perform that analysis are loops and subroutines. By means of the proposed coarse grain analysis, runahead threads oversee the usefulness of loops or subroutines depending on the prefetches opportunities during their executions. Thus, runahead threads decide which of these particular program structures execute depending on the obtained usefulness information, deciding either stall or skip the loop or subroutine executions to reduce the number of useless runahead instructions. Some of the proposed techniques reduce the speculative instruction and wasted energy while achieving similar performance to RaT.On the other hand, the efficient Runahead thread proposal is another contribution focused on improving RaT efficiency. This approach is based on a generic technique which covers all runahead thread executions, independently of the executed program characteristics as code semantic-aware runahead threads are. The key idea behind this new scheme is to find out --when' and --how long' a thread should be executed in runahead mode by predicting the useful runahead distance. The results show that the best of these approaches based on the runahead distance prediction significantly reduces the number of extra speculative instructions executed in runahead threads, as well as the power consumption. Likewise, it maintains the performance benefits of the runahead threads, thereby improving the energy-efficiency of SMT processors using the RaT mechanism.The evolution of Runahead Threads developed in this research provides not only a high performance but also an efficient way of using shared resources in SMT processors in the presence of long latency memory operations. As designers of future SMT systems will be increasingly required to optimize for a combination of single thread performance, total throughput, and energy consumption, RaT-based mechanisms are promising options that provide better performance and energy balance than previous proposals in the field