Drivers of Advances in Mechanized Timber Harvesting – a Selective Review of Technological Innovation

Timber harvesting operations vary greatly around the world, as do the adaptations of technology to the complex, locally variable conditions. Similarly, technological innovations occur as a response to a large number of different situations. This review examines the three main drivers considered to generate substantial technological change in mechanized timber harvesting: 1) availability of new technology, 2) demand for new products and 3) introduction of new regulations. The main focus is on Nordic cut-to-length harvesting using a harvester and forwarder, partly due to its advanced level of technology and partly due to the authors’ backgrounds. Examining new technology, progress towards increased automation is highlighted with examples of entry-level products that provide computer-assisted motion control and semiautomation. Examples of unmanned machines and other high-level automation are also presented. Innovations in the field of bioenergy harvesting are presented as examples of advances addressing the demand for new products. Thus, illustrations span from harvesting of tree parts other than stemwood, to how such harvesting and transportation can be integrated into the traditional stemwood harvest. The impact of new regulations on technological innovation is demonstrated with advances aimed at reducing soil damage. Examples range from technical solutions for reducing soil pressure, to walking, flying and even climbing machines. Some predictions are given as to when certain advances can be expected to become reality. However, even though the main drivers are likely to change timber harvesting with new products and new rules, they will probably do so through a continued adaptation of technology to local needs

Ammendatud freesturbaväljadel kasvatatava ahtalehise mustika masinviljelustehnoloogia

A Thesis for applying for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Engineering Sciences.Blueberry cultivation on milled peat fields is not particularly common in Estonia, while also not being very profitable. The basis for the development of blueberry cultivation is the mechanization and automation of production. This consists, on the one hand, in the development of machines and technical equipment with suitable productivity and, on the other hand, in reducing the operating costs of the machines. This doctoral thesis is largely based on six original publications and two intellectual properties. The aims of the thesis were to describe the technological peculiarities of a blueberry orchard planted on milled peat fields, to collect basic data for the development of a machinery which allows to reduce the importance of manual labour and to replace it with machinery to reduce the unit cost involved in technological operations and, thereby, to reduce manufacturing costs. In order to compile the initial task of designing a mechanized blueberry harvesting technology, the relationship between the various elements which are involved in blueberry cultivation (berry-plant-field-machine), all of which have been described, methodology has been developed to determine the physical properties of the blueberry plant. A methodology has been developed for determining the design and kinematic parameters of a motoblock-type blueberry harvester and for selecting the material of the harvester, the duration of the vernalisation period in Estonia was also determined. The patents that have been issued in the development of blueberry cultivation technology show that novel solutions have been elaborated. The studies that have been carried out and the solutions which have been developed could help in and become a prerequisite for the development of new equipment which will serve to foster the establishment of new blueberry plantations, first and foremost on milled peat fields, but also in terms of increasing profitability levels and reducing the ecological footprint in already established blueberry plantations.Kultuurmustikate kasvupind ja kogutoodang on maailmas oluliselt suurenenud. ÜRO Toidu- ja Põllumajandusorganisatsiooni andmetel kasvatati 2018. aastal kultuurmustikaid 113 000 hektaril ja kogutoodang ulatus 666 000 tonnini. Eestis moodustab mustikate hinnanguline kasvupind kuni 80 hektarit. Kultuurmustikate kasvatus ei ole Eestis praegu eriti tulus, kuna mustikaistandused on väikesed ja tööd tehakse peamiselt käsitsi. Mustikaviljeluse arenguks on vaja tootmist mehhaniseerimida ja automatiseerida. See seisneb sobiva tootlikkusega masinate ja tehniliste vahendite arendamises ning masinate kasutuskulude vähenemises. Väitekiri on koostatud kuue artikli ja kahe patendi põhjal. Uurimuses kirjeldati ammendatud freesturbaväljadele rajatud mustikaistanduse tehnoloogilisi iseärasusi. Uuringute käigus koguti lähteandmeid masinalise mustikaviljelusviisi väljatöötamiseks ning masinate ja tehniliste vahendite arendamiseks. Uurimistöö eesmärk oli suurendada masinate ja seadmete tootlikkust ja vähendada tööjõumahukust mustikaviljeluses tervikuna. Töö käigus kirjeldati mustikaviljelussüsteemi elementide (mari-taim-põld-masin) seoseid, määrati viljelussüsteemi elementide (mari, vars) mehaanikalised parameetrid, kavandati mustikakombaini uudse lahendusega korjeorgan, määrati vernalisatsiooniperioodi pikkus Eestis ja loodi tehnilised lahendused mustikakombainile, portatiivsele täppisväeturile, portatiivsele taimekaitsevahendi laoturile ja marjasorteerile tehnoloogiliste masinaliste tööoperatsioonide läbiviimiseks. Mustika masinviljelustehnoloogia arendusele väljastatud patendid annavad tunnistust uudsetest tehniliste lahendustest, mis võivad olla abiks ja eelduseks uute seadmete loomisel, mis aitavad kaasa uute mustikaistanduste loomisele eelkõige ammendunud freesturbaväljadel ning kasumlikkuse suurendamiseks ja ökoloogilise jalajälje vähendamiseks juba rajatud mustikaistandustes.Publication of this thesis is supported by Estonian University of Life Sciences and the Doctoral School of Energy and Geotechnology III and Estonian University of Life Sciences ASTRA project „Value-chain based bioeconomy“

Human factors in mechanized cut-to-length forest operations

Although forest operations research has a more than 50-year-long tradition in the field of human factors, there is a current decline in resources put on continuous and systematic human factors research. Therefore, the overall aim of this thesis was to contribute new knowledge on working conditions in mechanized cut-to-length logging operations and their relationship to system performance. Findings from four different studies, each using different research methods and approaches, were compiled and discussed based on their relevance to operator working conditions and logging system performance in a Nordic context and with a broader international outlook. A human, technology and organization (HTO) framework was used in Study I to scrutinize the problems that exist in the interactions between these three aspects. The body of knowledge on the H, T and O aspects was extended in Studies II, III and IV based on problem identification Study I. In study II, it was emphasized that most Swedish logging contractors were relatively small enterprises working purely with machine operations. Consequently, with the exception of between harvester and forwarder, task rotation has limited potential to be implemented within most companies. In Study III, forwarder crane work was essentially ruled out as a major source of harmful levels of whole body vibration (WBV). The results also indicated that the choice of grapple may prove important with respect to avoiding costly growth losses for the landowner and environmental concerns. In Study IV, gaze behaviour was investigated in an observational field study. By comparing operators in first thinning, second thinning and final felling, a task-dependent information search pattern was identified. Specifically, the information on the bucking monitor and the tree being felled was less frequently attended to, i.e. less interesting, during first thinning than during the other operation types. Taken as a whole, much of the forestry literature focuses on individual aspects of the work environment, as in studies II-IV, and a systems perspective is less frequently applied. A hindrance to applying a systems perspective is that it demands transdisciplinary research teams and interdisciplinary research. However, this should be seen as an opportunity and not a hindrance to successful future research

A technical survey of the South African harvesting machine population

South Africa adopted the practice of conducting technical surveys from Austria three decades ago. The Austrian technical survey was used to model the South African technical survey. The survey was conducted with the aim of providing the forestry industry with a detailed analysis of the state of timber harvesting operations. The first technical survey in South Africa was conducted in 1987, and the second one in 1998. The most recent study was carried out in 2007. Since 2007, there has been no other technical survey of a similar nature conducted on harvesting and transport operations. There is no recent information quantifying the volumes harvested, identifying harvesting systems and methods used, and determining volumes harvested using these systems and methods. Furthermore, no updated information exists on the type and quantities of timber trucks transporting the volume. A fourth technical survey that quantifies and analyses these aspects in harvesting operations, therefore, was due. The fourth technical survey aimed at quantifying the number of harvesting machines and timber trucks. The survey further investigated the drivers behind the mechanisation and system preference. The four technical surveys were compared to identify trends in harvesting machines and methods. The data were collected from grower companies, harvesting and transport contractors and small-scale timber growers. Questionnaires were sent to all potential respondents from the three target groups, and interviews were later conducted with selected respondents. The harvesting machines were quantified per function i.e. felling, extraction, processing and loading. The results showed that some machines were more common compared to other machines performing the same function. Mechanised felling machines sampled had more units in the fourth survey than the previous surveys had. Of the 10.6 million m3 volume surveyed in 2017, chainsaws had 1 048 units, and their number had decreased from the 5 000 sampled in the first technical survey in 1987 that sampled about 12.8 million m3. Harvesters and feller bunchers also increased from zero in the first technical survey to 94 and 13, respectively in the fourth survey. The drivers towards the increased use of mechanised equipment were identified as safety and health, ergonomics, productivity, labour issues, operational costs, terrain, and company policies. Despite the introduction of mechanisation, however, the use of manual labour was evident in hardwood processing and loading operations. Manual debarking was more common than mechanised debarking in the fourth technical survey. When comparing all four technical surveys, the cut to length (CTL) harvesting method was dominant in hardwood; harvesting 79% of the volume sampled in the 2017 survey. The full tree method was barely applied in the first three technical surveys and in the 2007 survey, it was absent. It was only in the fourth technical survey that the method was applied, felling 27% and 9% of the sampled volumes in softwood and hardwood, respectively. The technical survey provides information to the different stakeholders in the forest industry. Such include harvesting managers and contractors, grower companies, machine distributors and researchers. The information will bring awareness to harvesting managers and contractors about the different machine options available to assist in decision making when selecting systems. Machine distributors will know the number of machines, where machines are operating and their target market. A gap in knowledge will be bridged between the different provinces regarding the different types of harvesting machines out there

Lönsamhet vid delautomatisering av kranstyrning på skotare

Utmaningen med att öka produktiviteten i skotningsarbetet är inte bristen på bra teknik utan snarare förarens förmåga att utnyttja maskinens fulla kapacitet. Teknikutvecklingen går mot automation av repetitiva arbetsmoment för att minska den mänskliga påverkan. Mycket fokus ligger på delautomatisering av kranarbetet. Det huvudsakliga syftet för denna studie var att undersöka hur delautomatiserat kranarbete påverkar produktivitet och lönsamhet vid skotningsarbete. Ett underliggande syfte var att sammanställa andra för- och nackdelar med delautomatiserat kranarbete i jämförelse mot konventionell skotning. Den hypotes som legat till grund är att delautomatiserat kranarbete är lönsamt och har positiva effekter på förarmiljön. Grunden för detta arbete var litteraturstudier och matematiska analyser över skotningskostnader och produktiviteter. Resultatet visade att delautomation gav en tidsreducering som i sin tur gav ökad produktivitet. Total tidsreducering för hela skotningsarbetet ökade med ökad tidsreduktion på arbetsmoment där kranen är aktiv och minskade med ökat skotningsavstånd. Vid låga tidsreduceringar kunde lönsamhet ändå uppnås jämfört mot konventionell teknik. Vid en tidsreducering på 10 % på arbetsmoment där kranen är aktiv och med en investeringshöjning på 24 % gav det samma skotningskostnad som en konventionell skotare vid ett skotningsavstånd på 250 m. En förväntad investeringshöjning för en delautomatiserad skotare kommer troligen inte överstiga 24 % varför den mest troligt blir lönsam. Resultatet från litteraturstudien visade även att delautomation av kranstyrning har positiva effekter på förarens arbetsmiljö.The challenge of increasing the productivity of forwarding work is not the lack of good technology but rather the driver's ability to utilize the machine's full capacity. Technology development goes towards automation of repetitive tasks to reduce human impact. Much focus is on semi automation of crane work. The main purpose of this study was to investigate how the semi automated crane work affects the productivity and profitability in forwarding work. An underlying aim was to compile other advantages and disadvantages of semi automated crane work in comparison to conventional forwarding. The hypothesis was that semi automated crane work is profitable and has positive effects on the driver's environment. The basis for this work was literary studies and mathematical analyzes of forwarding costs and productivities. The results showed that the automation gave time reduction, which in turn resulted in increased productivity. Total time reduction for the entire forwarding work increased with increasing time reduction of operations where the crane is active and decreased with increasing forwarding distance. At low time reduction profitability could still be achieved compared to conventional technology. At a time reduction of 10 % of operations where the crane is active and with an investment increase of 24 % gave the same forwarding cost as a conventional forwarder at a forwarding distance of 250 m. The expected investment increase for a semi automated forwarder will probably not exceed 24 % of which it probably becomes profitable. The results of the literature study also showed that semi automation of crane control has a positive impact on operating environment

Autonomisten metsäkoneiden koneaistijärjestelmät

A prerequisite for increasing the autonomy of forest machinery is to provide robots with digital situational awareness, including a representation of the surrounding environment and the robot's own state in it. Therefore, this article-based dissertation proposes perception systems for autonomous or semi-autonomous forest machinery as a summary of seven publications. The work consists of several perception methods using machine vision, lidar, inertial sensors, and positioning sensors. The sensors are used together by means of probabilistic sensor fusion. Semi-autonomy is interpreted as a useful intermediary step, situated between current mechanized solutions and full autonomy, to assist the operator. In this work, the perception of the robot's self is achieved through estimation of its orientation and position in the world, the posture of its crane, and the pose of the attached tool. The view around the forest machine is produced with a rotating lidar, which provides approximately equal-density 3D measurements in all directions. Furthermore, a machine vision camera is used for detecting young trees among other vegetation, and sensor fusion of an actuated lidar and machine vision camera is utilized for detection and classification of tree species. In addition, in an operator-controlled semi-autonomous system, the operator requires a functional view of the data around the robot. To achieve this, the thesis proposes the use of an augmented reality interface, which requires measuring the pose of the operator's head-mounted display in the forest machine cabin. Here, this work adopts a sensor fusion solution for a head-mounted camera and inertial sensors. In order to increase the level of automation and productivity of forest machines, the work focuses on scientifically novel solutions that are also adaptable for industrial use in forest machinery. Therefore, all the proposed perception methods seek to address a real existing problem within current forest machinery. All the proposed solutions are implemented in a prototype forest machine and field tested in a forest. The proposed methods include posture measurement of a forestry crane, positioning of a freely hanging forestry crane attachment, attitude estimation of an all-terrain vehicle, positioning a head mounted camera in a forest machine cabin, detection of young trees for point cleaning, classification of tree species, and measurement of surrounding tree stems and the ground surface underneath.Metsäkoneiden autonomia-asteen kasvattaminen edellyttää, että robotilla on digitaalinen tilannetieto sekä ympäristöstä että robotin omasta toiminnasta. Tämän saavuttamiseksi työssä on kehitetty autonomisen tai puoliautonomisen metsäkoneen koneaistijärjestelmiä, jotka hyödyntävät konenäkö-, laserkeilaus- ja inertia-antureita sekä paikannusantureita. Työ liittää yhteen seitsemässä artikkelissa toteutetut havainnointimenetelmät, joissa useiden anturien mittauksia yhdistetään sensorifuusiomenetelmillä. Työssä puoliautonomialla tarkoitetaan hyödyllisiä kuljettajaa avustavia välivaiheita nykyisten mekanisoitujen ratkaisujen ja täyden autonomian välillä. Työssä esitettävissä autonomisen metsäkoneen koneaistijärjestelmissä koneen omaa toimintaa havainnoidaan estimoimalla koneen asentoa ja sijaintia, nosturin asentoa sekä siihen liitetyn työkalun asentoa suhteessa ympäristöön. Yleisnäkymä metsäkoneen ympärille toteutetaan pyörivällä laserkeilaimella, joka tuottaa lähes vakiotiheyksisiä 3D-mittauksia jokasuuntaisesti koneen ympäristöstä. Nuoret puut tunnistetaan muun kasvillisuuden joukosta käyttäen konenäkökameraa. Lisäksi puiden tunnistamisessa ja puulajien luokittelussa käytetään konenäkökameraa ja laserkeilainta yhdessä sensorifuusioratkaisun avulla. Lisäksi kuljettajan ohjaamassa puoliautonomisessa järjestelmässä kuljettaja tarvitsee toimivan tavan ymmärtää koneen tuottaman mallin ympäristöstä. Työssä tämä ehdotetaan toteutettavaksi lisätyn todellisuuden käyttöliittymän avulla, joka edellyttää metsäkoneen ohjaamossa istuvan kuljettajan lisätyn todellisuuden lasien paikan ja asennon mittaamista. Työssä se toteutetaan kypärään asennetun kameran ja inertia-anturien sensorifuusiona. Jotta metsäkoneiden automatisaatiotasoa ja tuottavuutta voidaan lisätä, työssä keskitytään uusiin tieteellisiin ratkaisuihin, jotka soveltuvat teolliseen käyttöön metsäkoneissa. Kaikki esitetyt koneaistijärjestelmät pyrkivät vastaamaan todelliseen olemassa olevaan tarpeeseen nykyisten metsäkoneiden käytössä. Siksi kaikki menetelmät on implementoitu prototyyppimetsäkoneisiin ja tulokset on testattu metsäympäristössä. Työssä esitetyt menetelmät mahdollistavat metsäkoneen nosturin, vapaasti riippuvan työkalun ja ajoneuvon asennon estimoinnin, lisätyn todellisuuden lasien asennon mittaamisen metsäkoneen ohjaamossa, nuorten puiden havaitsemisen reikäperkauksessa, ympäröivien puiden puulajien tunnistuksen, sekä puun runkojen ja maanpinnan mittauksen

A Study of Technological Innovation in New Zealand

This thesis addresses the research problem of "what are the key underpinning assets or drivers of technological innovation, and how can they be harnessed to create competitive advantage?" Technological change is an evolutionary process. Research and technological innovation creates knowledge and technology that is irreversible in the sense that inventions can be superseded but not "uninvented". Technological innovation creates knowledge and technology that is cumulative because it lays a platform for further knowledge creation, or sets in place another rung in an ascending ladder of new performance characteristics or properties which are demonstrably superior to their antecedents. In turn, the asset specificity and irreversibility of technology and its cumulativeness create barriers to competitive entry. This allows a firm to earn the premiums that create market power and allow further innovation to be financed. The model of technological innovation advanced in this thesis has at its core the strategic governance framework of a firm, within which the dynamics of significant new technology, human capital and social processes are catalysed and made productive by differentiated technological learning processes. No one type of technological learning applies universally, but rather learning is differentiated by variables such as firm size and structure, the past experience and core competencies of the firm, its human capital stocks, social processes, interactions with the external environment, and a host of market, institutional and technological factors. It is argued that the dynamics of significant new technology, human capital and social processes are fundamental and necessary conditions of technological innovation. Technological learning processes underly and provide a connecting thread that integrates these necessary conditions into a model of technological innovation that can be applied by managers to create and sustain competitive advantage. Technological learning both shapes and is shaped by the human capital stocks and social processes of a firm. Learning processes give rise to significant new technology, and the dynamics of that technology in turn helps catalyse and gives rise to further learning. The rate and direction of learning and of technological innovation is also driven by the firm's interaction with external sources of ideas and technology. To create competitive advantage through technological innovation business managers must address a firm's strategy, human capital-related assets, social processes and technological learning abilities. Policy managers must ensure that the public technostructure is in place to foster human capital creation within an economy and to facilitate access to new ideas and sources of stimulus