Photovoltaic panel recycling: from type-selective processes to flexible apparatus for simultaneous treatment of different types.

Photovoltaic (PV) technology for renewable energy utilization is constantly growing throughout the world. This widespread application is going to determine the disposal of large amounts of wastes (as end of life panels): only in Europe about 500,000 ton/year are expected in the next 20 years. European Union issued the Guideline 2012/19/EU in order to fix rules about end of life photovoltaic panel’s treatment establishing both collecting rates and minimum recovery targets. Currently the dominant PV technology uses crystalline silicon (monocrystalline and polycrystalline) as semiconductor, but the thin film photovoltaic modules using cadmium telluride (CdTe), amorphous silicon, Copper Indium Gallium Selenide (CIGS) and Copper Indium Selenide (CIS) are recently getting much more importance. Wastes of PV installations are secondary raw materials which could be treated in order to recover glass and Al, but also other metals such as Cu, Ti, Ag, Te, In, Se, Ga, along with plastic and metallic components of electronic equipment. Many recent efforts were devoted to the treatment of end of life panels, but only two full scale processes were developed for crystalline silicon modules (Deutsche Solar) and CdTe panels (First Solar). Furthermore, recent developments concerned with new technologies designed for treating together more kinds of photovoltaic panels by automated processes. In this work a picture of the PV world in terms of market, typology, waste dynamics and recoverable materials will be given. A description of full scale processes will be reported evidencing products and yields of recovery. A case study of process development for the simultaneous treatment of different kinds of PV panels will be presented. In particular experimental results in lab and pilot scale will be described regarding the development and optimization of a process including both physical pre-treatment and hydrometallurgical recovery of target metal concentrates. The process will be validated in pilot scale within the activities of the Photolife project (LIFE13 ENV/IT/001033) financed by European Community in the LIFE+ program

Innovative and sustainable strategies of urban mining

La gestione di un’enorme quantità di rifiuti da apparecchiature elettriche ed elettroniche (RAEE), rappresenta un problema rilevante per la nostra società, poichè rischi per l’ambiente e la salute umana, legati ad una scorretta gestione, sono combinati con la perdita di materiali valorizzabili. Questo lavoro ha per oggetto lo sviluppo di processi sostenibili per il recupero di metalli di valore dai RAEE: in particolare, è stata effettuata un’indagine in laboratorio mirata all’estrazione, da schermi a cristalli liquidi, di indio, un metallo recentemente classificato dalla Commissione Europea tra i “critical raw materials”. La sperimentazione ha permesso l’ottimizzazione di un processo con rese di recupero di indio superiori al 90%, basato su operazioni idrometallurgiche. E’ stato studiato inoltre il processo dal punto di vista della sua sostenibilità ambientale, confrontandone l’impatto con quello degli attuali sistemi di gestione degli schermi a cristalli liquidi . La valutazione ha evidenziato che il ciclo di gestione delle acque di processo e pre-trattamenti fisici del pannello finalizzati alla concentrazione del metallo, rappresentano dei fattori chiave per la sostenibilità ambientale del processo. Il lavoro è stato svolto nel contesto di un progetto finanziato dalla Commissione Europea nell’ambito del 7FP, denominato HydroWEEE. Tale progetto aveva per obiettivo la realizzazione di un impianto mobile, con caratteristiche flessibili per il recupero di metalli da diversi RAEE: indio da TV/monitor a cristalli liquidi, ittrio da lampade e tubi catodici, rame oro e argento da circuiti stampati, cobalto da batterie litio-ione. L’attività di ricerca è stata anche finalizzata a valutare la sostenibilità ambientale dei vari processi realizzati nell’impianto mobile, evidenziandone un generale vantaggio (tra il 20 e l’80%) rispetto alla produzione primaria dei metalli. La valutazione dei rischi per i lavoratori nell’impianto mobile conclude lo studio.The management of a huge quantity of waste from electric and electronic equipment (WEEE) represents a critical issue for the modern society. The negative environmental and health effects due to the improperly management are combined with the loss of valuable materials. The present work focused on the recovery of metals from WEEE with particular attention to indium from end-of-life liquid crystal displays (LCD). The experimental section allowed the optimization of a process that includes an acid leaching characterized by an innovative cross-current design, followed by a cementation with zinc powder. Considering the satisfying efficiencies obtained on the lab scale, higher than 90%, the whole process was studied from an environmental point of view comparing its emissions with those produced by the current management strategies (disposal in landfilling sites, incineration and traditional recycling). A life cycle assessment (LCA) of the different scenarios proved the significant advantage of recycling ways. Moreover, the traditional recycling resulted to be the most favorable, due for both the relevant water consumption of the innovative treatment and to the low indium content in the LCD. Nevertheless, a simple water recirculation system, combined with a physical indium upgrading in the waste, make the innovative option the best choice. The simple design of the optimized process allows its implementation in a mobile plant, built within the European project, HydroWEEE. The plant mobility prevents the impacts due to the waste transport, that contributes to the 30-40% of the currently treatments. Furthermore, this advantage is combined with the possibility to treat several WEEE for the recovery of different metals. The sustainability of this approach was proved by a LCA that highlighted the positive effect also in the comparison with the primary production, with a benefit between 20 and 80%. Last, but not least, the risk for workers in the real mobile plant was assessed

Innovative and sustainable strategies of urban mining

openLa gestione di un’enorme quantità di rifiuti da apparecchiature elettriche ed elettroniche (RAEE), rappresenta un problema rilevante per la nostra società, poichè rischi per l’ambiente e la salute umana, legati ad una scorretta gestione, sono combinati con la perdita di materiali valorizzabili. Questo lavoro ha per oggetto lo sviluppo di processi sostenibili per il recupero di metalli di valore dai RAEE: in particolare, è stata effettuata un’indagine in laboratorio mirata all’estrazione, da schermi a cristalli liquidi, di indio, un metallo recentemente classificato dalla Commissione Europea tra i “critical raw materials”. La sperimentazione ha permesso l’ottimizzazione di un processo con rese di recupero di indio superiori al 90%, basato su operazioni idrometallurgiche. E’ stato studiato inoltre il processo dal punto di vista della sua sostenibilità ambientale, confrontandone l’impatto con quello degli attuali sistemi di gestione degli schermi a cristalli liquidi . La valutazione ha evidenziato che il ciclo di gestione delle acque di processo e pre-trattamenti fisici del pannello finalizzati alla concentrazione del metallo, rappresentano dei fattori chiave per la sostenibilità ambientale del processo. Il lavoro è stato svolto nel contesto di un progetto finanziato dalla Commissione Europea nell’ambito del 7FP, denominato HydroWEEE. Tale progetto aveva per obiettivo la realizzazione di un impianto mobile, con caratteristiche flessibili per il recupero di metalli da diversi RAEE: indio da TV/monitor a cristalli liquidi, ittrio da lampade e tubi catodici, rame oro e argento da circuiti stampati, cobalto da batterie litio-ione. L’attività di ricerca è stata anche finalizzata a valutare la sostenibilità ambientale dei vari processi realizzati nell’impianto mobile, evidenziandone un generale vantaggio (tra il 20 e l’80%) rispetto alla produzione primaria dei metalli. La valutazione dei rischi per i lavoratori nell’impianto mobile conclude lo studio.The management of a huge quantity of waste from electric and electronic equipment (WEEE) represents a critical issue for the modern society. The negative environmental and health effects due to the improperly management are combined with the loss of valuable materials. The present work focused on the recovery of metals from WEEE with particular attention to indium from end-of-life liquid crystal displays (LCD). The experimental section allowed the optimization of a process that includes an acid leaching characterized by an innovative cross-current design, followed by a cementation with zinc powder. Considering the satisfying efficiencies obtained on the lab scale, higher than 90%, the whole process was studied from an environmental point of view comparing its emissions with those produced by the current management strategies (disposal in landfilling sites, incineration and traditional recycling). A life cycle assessment (LCA) of the different scenarios proved the significant advantage of recycling ways. Moreover, the traditional recycling resulted to be the most favorable, due for both the relevant water consumption of the innovative treatment and to the low indium content in the LCD. Nevertheless, a simple water recirculation system, combined with a physical indium upgrading in the waste, make the innovative option the best choice. The simple design of the optimized process allows its implementation in a mobile plant, built within the European project, HydroWEEE. The plant mobility prevents the impacts due to the waste transport, that contributes to the 30-40% of the currently treatments. Furthermore, this advantage is combined with the possibility to treat several WEEE for the recovery of different metals. The sustainability of this approach was proved by a LCA that highlighted the positive effect also in the comparison with the primary production, with a benefit between 20 and 80%. Last, but not least, the risk for workers in the real mobile plant was assessed.SCIENZE DELLA VITA E DELL'AMBIENTEAmato, AlessiaAmato, Alessi

Germanium: Current and Novel Recovery Processes

Germanium (Ge) is considered a critical element due to its many industrial applications; Ge is a metalloid used in solar cells, fiber optics, metallurgy, chemotherapy, and polymerization catalysis. The main sources of Ge are sulfides ores of Zn, Pb, and Cu, coal deposits, as well as by-products and residues from the processing of these ores and coals (e.g., smelting flue dust and coal fly ashes). Indeed, over 30% of global Ge consumed come from recycling processes. The recovery of Ge from sulfide ores is mostly based on hydrometallurgical processes followed by a number of mass transfer techniques to concentrate Ge (e.g., solvent extraction). However, environmental-friendly extraction methods of Ge from coal fly ashes and copper smelting flue dust have recently been proposed in order to reduce environmental impacts. In addition, novel processes based on absorption of Ge with ribbon grass have become an interesting option not only to produce Ge but also to boost soil decontamination and biogas production. This chapter presents a general description of Ge occurrence, associations, and chemistry as well as a review of the current and novel recovery processes of Ge. The main sources of Ge and its main industrial applications are also discussed

Value recovery from Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE): A potential opportunity towards a circular economy for end-of-life Mobile Phones

Waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) is one of the fastest growing solid waste streams worldwide and, if not treated properly, presents serious health and environmental issues as well as extensive loss of strategic metals. The dramatic increase in the consumption of raw materials over recent decades to meet consumer demand has led to an imbalance in supply and demand, and a potential threat to the continued supply of critical metals. WEEE is a resource-rich source with many of the metals embedded in its composition listed as critical by the European Commission; extraction of these metals from WEEE, to mitigate their threat to supply, is imperative. Using end-of-life mobile phones (EoL-MPs), fast-moving consumer electronics, representative of the value embedded in WEEE, as a case study, a full characterisation of metallic and non-metallic fractions within a mobile phone confirms the presence of up to 71 elements, with many of the strategic and critical metals found in higher concentrations than in their natural ores. Exploiting the unique properties of ionic liquids (ILs), chosen for their selectivity as potential extractants, [Bmim]HSO4 for copper, Cyphos 101 for gold, Cyphos 101 and Aliquat 336 for indium, and [Hbet][Tf2N] for REEs, processes were developed using model test systems to determine optimal parameters to achieve recovery. These developed processes were then applied to treat as-received multigenerational EoL-MP components (printed circuit boards, screens, speakers, etc.), with metals of almost 99% purity recovered, for conversion to products of commercial value. Moreover, the benefit of recycling the ILs as extractants multiple times, without impacting their integrity or efficiency, is realised. This research demonstrates the potential to unlock value from this waste stream that can be exploited in other WEEE streams, as a step towards balancing the criticality of supply and demand of metals that are under threat.Open Acces

Near-zero-waste processing of low-grade, complex primary ores and secondary raw materials in Europe: technology development trends

With an increasing number of low-grade primary ores starting to be cog-effectively mined, we are at the verge of mining a myriad of low-grade primary and secondary mineral materials. At the same time, mining practices and mineral waste recycling are both evolving towards sustainable near-zero-waste processing of low-grade resources within a circular economy that requires a shift in business models, policies and improvements in process technologies. This review discusses the evolution towards low-grade primary ore and secondary raw material mining that will allow for sufficient supply of critical raw materials as well as base metals. Seven low-grade ores, including primary (Greek and Polish laterites) and secondary (fayalitic slags, jarosite and goethite sludges, zincrich waste treatment sludge and chromium-rich neutralisation sludge) raw materials are discussed as typical examples for Europe. In order to treat diverse and complex low-grade ores efficiently, the use of a new metallurgical systems toolbox is proposed, which is populated with existing and innovative unit operations: (i) mineral processing, (ii) metal extraction, (iii) metal recovery and (iv) matrix valorisation. Several promising novel techniques are under development for these four unit-operations. From an economical and environmental point of view, such processes must be fitted into new (circular) business models, whereby impacts and costs are divided over the entire value chain. Currently, low-grade secondary raw material processing is only economic and environmentally beneficial when the mineral residues can be valorised and landfill costs are avoided and/or incentives for waste processing can be taken into account

Rare Metals Extraction from Non-ferrous Resources in India: Present Status and Prospects of R&D

Rare metals comprise of those naturally occurring elements with relatively lesser abundance in the earth 's crust which are difficult to extract by normal metallurgical processes. The present paper summarizes the ore / mineral resource base including the secondary resources, current usage and extraction technology of rare metals in India. The R&D in India has resulted in the exploitation of such processes or poised for gainful utilization. As the tech-nologies for extraction of rare metals follow a different methodology than those applicable to the normal base metals and were not readily available at the early stage of development during 1950-1990s, indigenous developments matured and were put to use; a few such technologies are described. Mention may be made of the applications of special processing options such as: halide metallurgy, strong acid / alkali treatment for breaking down the refractory minerals FIF/ alkali fusion ; solvent extra-ction/ ion exchange for metal separation, and vacuum melting/ electron beam melting/ refining etc for melting/ refining, to meet the stringent specifications of the rare metals . In most cases, extraction is carried out using primary resources , but for metals not present in a substantial quantity in natural ores or in diffused state, secondary resources are exploited. Secondary resources are particularly criticalfor Ga, V, Mo, W, Se, Te etc. Possi- bilities for further research are indicated to ensure secured supply ofthese metals in future

Critical Raw Materials and the Circular Economy – Background report

This report is a background document used by several European Commission services to prepare the EC report on critical raw materials and the circular economy, a commitment of the European Commission made in its Communication ‘EU action plan for the Circular Economy’. It represents a JRC contribution to the Raw Material Initiative and to the EU Circular Economy Action Plan. It combines the results of several research programmes and activities of the JRC on critical raw materials in a context of circular economy, for which a large team has contributed in terms of data and knowledge developments. Circular use of critical raw materials in the EU is analysed, also taking a sectorial perspective. The following sectors are analysed in more detail: mining waste, landfills, electric and electronic equipment, batteries, automotive, renewable energy, defence and chemicals and fertilisers. Conclusions and opportunities for further work are also presented.JRC.D.3-Land Resource

Investigation of indium and other valuable metals leaching from unground waste LCD screens by organic and inorganic acid leaching

Indium (In) is the indispensable part of liquid crystal display (LCD) screen which is applied as a thin semiconductor layer on the surface mainly in the form of indium tin oxide (ITO), and feasible end-of-life recycling of indium from this electronic devices is technologically challenging. The present study investigates the recovery of indium from spent untreated liquid crystal display (LCD) screen by inorganic and organic leaching. Critical process parameters such as effects of different acids, leaching duration, reusability of acidic solution and both sides of the organic layers on the LCD were studied to optimize the indium leaching from the waste screen. The efficiencies of inorganic acids (nitric and sulfuric) and organic acids (citric, glycolic, L-ascorbic, maleic and DL-tartaric) to leach metals on LCD were investigated in different leaching duration from 3 to 168 h. Extracted metal concentrations and dissolved organics are characterized by inductively coupled plasma with mass spectrometry and total organic carbon analyser, respectively. The results indicate that over 90% extraction of indium and the lowest amount of other impurities can be achieved using 1 M H2SO4 for a leaching period of 48 h. Moreover, similar results could reach with 1 M HNO3, while organic acids were less successful under these conditions. Overall, the indium amount could reach up to 69 mg/kgITO glass for the front and 31 mg/kgITO glass for the back side glass. However, relatively high amount of organic layer from LCD screen dissolves in nitric acid solution up to 4000 mgTOC/l, which can affect the further stages of a recycling process. Besides, aluminium, zinc and tin were identified as the elements with the highest amount with indium in the leachate. All these elements were found in both, glass and organic layer of the LCD screen. Although metals from LCD screen have limited solubility in organic acids, specifically tartaric acid has a selective extraction behaviour for molybdenum. By reusing the leachate for further leaching processes, the concentration of indium could be increased constantly up to five times, which indicates that it is possible to increase the indium concentration to the industrially processable amount

Critical raw materials and the circular economy

This report is a background document used by several European Commission services to prepare the EC report on critical raw materials and the circular economy, a commitment of the European Commission made in its Communication ‘EU action plan for the Circular Economy’. It represents a JRC contribution to the Raw Material Initiative and to the EU Circular Economy Action Plan. It combines the results of several research programmes and activities of the JRC on critical raw materials in a context of circular economy, for which a large team has contributed in terms of data and knowledge developments. Circular use of critical raw materials in the EU is analysed, also taking a sectorial perspective. The following sectors are analysed in more detail: extractive waste, landfills, electric and electronic equipment, batteries, automotive, renewable energy, defence and chemicals and fertilisers. Conclusions and opportunities for further work are also presented