A Survey of Air-to-Ground Propagation Channel Modeling for Unmanned Aerial Vehicles

In recent years, there has been a dramatic increase in the use of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), particularly for small UAVs, due to their affordable prices, ease of availability, and ease of operability. Existing and future applications of UAVs include remote surveillance and monitoring, relief operations, package delivery, and communication backhaul infrastructure. Additionally, UAVs are envisioned as an important component of 5G wireless technology and beyond. The unique application scenarios for UAVs necessitate accurate air-to-ground (AG) propagation channel models for designing and evaluating UAV communication links for control/non-payload as well as payload data transmissions. These AG propagation models have not been investigated in detail when compared to terrestrial propagation models. In this paper, a comprehensive survey is provided on available AG channel measurement campaigns, large and small scale fading channel models, their limitations, and future research directions for UAV communication scenarios

Progress towards a propagation prediction service for HF communications with aircraft on trans-polar routes

Commercial airlines began operations over polar routes in 1999 with a small number of proving flights. By 2014 the number had increased to in excess of 12,000 flights per year, and further increases are expected. For safe operations, the aircraft have to be able to communicate with air traffic control centres at all times. This is achieved by VHF links whilst within range of the widespread network of ground stations, and is by HF radio in remote areas such as the Polar regions, the North Atlantic and Pacific where VHF ground infrastructure does not exist. Furthermore, the Russian side of the pole only has HF capability. Researchers at the University of Leicester and at Lancaster University have developed various models (outlined below) that can be employed in HF radio propagation predictions. It is anticipated that these models will form the basis of an HF forecasting and nowcasting service for the airline industry. Propagation coverage predictions make use of numerical ray tracing to estimate the ray paths through a model ionosphere. Initially, a background ionospheric model is produced, which is then perturbed to include the various ionospheric features prevalent at high latitudes (in particular patches, arcs, auroral zone irregularities and the mid-latitude trough) that significantly affect the propagation of the radio signals. The approach that we are currently adopting is to start with the IRI and to perturb this based on measurements made near to the time and area of interest to form the basis of the background ionospheric model. This is then further perturbed to include features such as the convecting patches, the parameters of which may also be informed by measurements. A significant problem is the high variability of the high latitude ionosphere, and the relative scarcity of real-time measurements over the region. Real time measurements that we will use as the basis for perturbing the IRI include ionosonde soundings from, e.g. the GIRO database, and TEC measurements from the IGS network. Real-time modelling of HF radiowave absorption in the D-region ionosphere is also included. The geostationary GOES satellites provide real-time information on X-ray flux (causing shortwave fadeout during solar flares) and the flux of precipitating energetic protons which correlates strongly with Polar Cap Absorption (PCA). Real-time solar wind and interplanetary magnetic field measurements from the ACE or DSCOVR spacecraft provide geomagnetic index estimates used to model the location of both auroral absorption (on a probabilistic basis) and the proton rigidity cutoff boundary that defines the latitudinal extent of PCA during solar proton events (SPE). Empirical climatological models have been uniquely adapted to assimilate recent measurements of cosmic noise absorption (at 30 MHz) from a large array of riometers in Canada and Scandinavia. The model parameters are continuously optimised and updated to account for regional and temporal variations in ionospheric composition (and hence HF absorption rate (dB/km)) that can change significantly during the course of an SPE, for example. Real-time optimisation during SPE can also improve estimates of the proton rigidity cutoff and improve the modelled ionospheric response function absorption vs. zenith angle) at twilight

FCS Technology Investigation Overview

This working paper provides an overview of the Future Communication Study (FCS) technology investigation progress. It includes a description of the methodology applied to technology evaluation; evaluation criteria; and technology screening (down select) results. A comparison of screening results with other similar technology screening activities is provided. Additional information included in this working paper is a description of in-depth studies (including characterization of the L-band aeronautical channel; L-band deployment cost assessment; and performance assessments of candidate technologies in the applicable aeronautical channel) that have been conducted to support technology evaluations. The paper concludes with a description on-going activities leading to conclusion of the technology investigation and the development of technology recommendations

Modelling of radio wave propagation using Finite Element Analysis.

Fourth generation (4G) wireless communication systems are intended to support high data rates which requires careful and accurate modelling of the radio environment. In this thesis, for the first time finite clement based accurate and computationally efficient models of wave propagation in different outdoor and indoor environments has been developed. Three different environments were considered: the troposphere, vegetation and tunnels and wave propagation in these environments were modelled using finite element analysis. Use of finite elements in wave propagation modelling is a novel idea although many propagation models and approaches were used in past. Coverage diagrams, path loss contours and power levels were calculated using developed models in the troposphere, vegetation and tunnels. Results obtained were compared with commercially available software Advanced Refractive Effects Prediction Software (AREPS) to validate the accuracy of the developed approach and it is shown that results were accurate with an accuracy of 3dB. The developed models were very flexible in handling complex geometries and similar analysis can be easily extended to other environments. A fully vectored finite element base propagation model was developed for straight and curved tunnels. An optimum range of values of different electrical parameters for tunnels of different shapes has been derived. The thesis delivered a novel approach to modelling radio channels that provided a fast and accurate solution of radio wave propagation in realistic environments. The results of this thesis will have a great impact in modelling and characterisation of future wireless communication systems

Semi-hidden markov models for visible light communication channels

A dissertation submitted to the Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Engineering, Johannesburg 2018Visible Light Communication (VLC) is an emerging field in optical wireless communication that uses light emitting diodes (LEDs) for data transmission. LEDs are being widely adopted both indoors and outdoors due to their low cost, long lifespan and high efficiency. Furthermore, LEDs can be modulated to provide both illumination and wireless communication. There is also potential for VLC to be incorporated into future smart lighting systems. One of the current challenges in VLC is being able to deal with noise and interference; including interference from other dimmed, Pulse-Width Modulated (PWM) LEDs. Other noise includes natural light from the sun and artificial light from other non-modulating light sources. Modelling these types of channels is one of the first steps in understanding the channel and eventually designing techniques for mitigating the effects of noise and interference. This dissertation presents a semi-hidden Markov model, known as the Fritchman model, that discretely models the effects of as well as errors introduced from noise and interference in on-off keying modulated VLC channels. Models have been developed for both the indoor and outdoor environments and can be used for VLC simulations and designing error mitigation techniques. Results show that certain channels are able to be better modelled than others. Experimental error distributions shows insights into the impact that PWM interference has on VLC channels. This can be used for assisting in the development of error control codes and interference avoidance techniques in standalone VLC systems, as well as systems where VLC and smart lighting coexist. The models developed can also be used for simulations of VLC channels under different channel conditionsXL201

Wireless Channel Path-Loss Modelling for Agricultural and Vegetation Environments: A Survey

This work undertakes an extensive survey of the channel modelling methods and path-loss characterization carried out in agricultural fields and vegetation environments in an attempt to study the state-of-the-art in this field, which, though vastly explored, still presents extremely diverse opportunities and challenges. The interface for communication between nodes in a typical agricultural field is the wireless channel or air interface, making it imperative to address the impairments that are exclusive to such a communication scenario by studying the characteristics of the medium. The performance of the channel is a direct indicator of the quality of communication. It is required to have a lucid understanding of the channel to ensure quality in transmission of the required information, while simultaneously ensuring maximum capacity by employing limited resources. The impairments that are the very nature of a typical wireless channel are treated in an explicit manner covering the theoretical and mathematical models, analytical aspects and empirical models. Although there are several propagation models characterized for generic indoor and outdoor environments, these cannot be applied to agricultural, vegetation, forest and foliage scenarios due to the various additional factors that are specific to these environments. Owing to the wide variety, size, properties and span of the foliage, it also becomes extremely challenging to develop a generic predictive model for all kinds of crops or vegetation. The survey is categorized into fields containing specific crops, greenhouse environment and forest/foliage scenarios and the key findings are presented

Dual-Band Non-Stationary Channel Modeling for the Air-Ground Channel

Multiple air-to-ground (AG) radio propagation channels are experimentally characterized for two frequency bands, C-band and L-band. These characterizations are aimed to support the specification of the control and non-payload communication (CNPC) links being designed for civil unmanned aircraft systems (UAS). The use of UAS is expected to grow dramatically in the coming decades. In the United States, UAS will be monitored and guided in their operation within the national airspace system (NAS) via the CNPC link. The specifications of the CNPC link are being designed by government, industries, academia and standards bodies such as the Radio Technical Commission for Aeronautics (RTCA). Two bands have been allocated for the CNPC applications: from 5030 to 5091 MHz in C-band and a portion of the aeronautical L-band from 960 to 1215 MHz. The project under which this work was conducted is entitled “Unmanned Aircraft Systems Research: The AG Channel, Robust Waveforms, and Aeronautical Network Simulations”, and this is a sub-project of a NASA project entitled “Unmanned Aircraft Systems Integration in the National Airspace System.” Measurements and modeling for radio propagation channels play an essential role in wireless communication system design and performance evaluation; such models estimate attenuation, delay dispersion, and antenna diversity in wireless channels. The AG channel differs significantly from classic cellular, ground-to-satellite, and other terrestrial wireless channels, particularly in terms of antenna heights and velocity. The previous studies about the AG channels are reviewed and the significant gaps are indicated. NASA Glenn Research Center has conducted an AG channel measurement campaign for multiple ground station local environments, including over sea, over freshwater, desert, suburban, near urban, hilly and mountainous settings. In this campaign, over 316 million power delay profiles (PDPs) or channel impulse responses (CIRs), over 82 flight tracks, have been collected. The measurement equipment was a dual-band single-input multiple-output (SIMO) wideband channel sounding system with bandwidth of 50 MHz in C-band and 5 MHz in L-band. Given the dynamic nature of the AG environments, the channels are statistically non-stationary, meaning that the channel’s statistical parameters change over time/space. We have estimated, via two distinct methods, that the stationarity distance is approximately 15 m—this is the distance over which the channel characteristics can be assumed to be wide sense stationary. The AG channel attenuation is considered as a combination of large scale path loss, small scale fading, and airframe shadowing. The large scale path loss is modeled by both the log-distance model and two-ray models. The theoretical flat earth and curved earth two-ray models are presented, along with their limitations, boundaries and some enhancements. Numerous propagation effects in the AG channels are discussed, and this includes earth spherical divergence, atmospheric refraction, atmospheric gas and hydrometeor attenuations, and ducting. The small scale fading is described by the Ricean distribution, which for unit-energy normalizations are completely characterized by Ricean K-factors; these K-factors are approximately 28.7 dB in C-band and 13.1 dB in L-band. The line-of-sight (LOS) signal can be obstructed by the airplane itself in some specific maneuvers, and this is termed airframe shadowing. For the specific flights and NASA aircraft used in our measurements, the shadowing duration was found to be on average 30 seconds, and the shadowing loss can be as large as 40 dB. The statistics, models and simulation algorithm for the airframe shadowing are provided. The wideband characteristics of the AG channel are quantified using root-mean-square delay spread (RMS-DS), and illustrated by sequences of PDPs. Tapped delay line (TDL) models are also provided. Doppler effects for over water channels are also addressed. Given the sparsity of the diffuse multipath components (MPCs) in the AG channels and generally short lifetime of these MPCs, the CIRs are modeled by the two-ray model plus intermittent 3rd, 4th or 5th “rays.” Models for intermittent ray probability of occurrence, duration, relative power, phase, and excess delay are provided. The channels at C-band and L-band were found to be essentially uncorrelated; this conclusion holds for the specific antenna locations used in our experiments (the aircraft underside), but is not expected to change for arbitrary antenna locations. For the aircraft antenna locations employed, intra-band signals are highly correlated, and this is as expected for channels with a dominant LOS component; analytical correlation computations show interesting two-ray effects that also appear in measurements. Multiple aircraft antennas and carefully selected locations are recommended for mitigating airframe shadowing for the CNPC link. Future work for AG channel modeling includes characterization of L-band delay dispersion and L-band TDL models, estimation of building and/or tree shadowing for small UAS that fly at very low altitudes, evaluation of multiple ground site(s) antenna diversity, and AG channel modeling via geometric techniques, e.g., ray-tracing