RF-EMF exposure induced by mobile phones operating in LTE small cells in two different urban cities

With the huge growth in data traffic, the densification of the macro cell (MC) layer with low-powered small cell (SC) base stations (resulting in a heterogeneous network) will improve network performances in terms of radio coverage and capacity. However, this may influence the human exposure to radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (RF-EMFs). Through measurement campaigns in two different urban cities (in France and the Netherlands), the authors characterized the RF-EMF exposure induced by LTE (Long-Term Evolution) MC and SC networks, while considering radio emissions from both base stations (downlink or DL) and user equipment (uplink or UL). For an internet data usage and with respect to an MC connection, results showed that an SC connection may increase the DL exposure while decreasing the UL exposure (with a factor of 5 to 17), mainly due to the lower mobile phone emitted power and depending on whether the throughput is limited or not. Furthermore, the city with a dense network is characterized by low UL exposure and high DL exposure

Determination of electromagnetic field exposure in public spaces

The monitoring of electromagnetic (EM) field, caused by the presence of radio frequency (RF) and microwave radiation from ICT devices as various sources of EM field, has emerged as an important technical and social challenge in terms of planning, management and usage of open public spaces. Considering the necessity of EM field level determination in the context of using ICT devices in service areas, as well as monitoring of EM field exposure in public spaces, the several technical issues have been foreseen in the analyses based on corresponding examples: from the method for modelling of EM field propagation in the vicinity of RF and microwave sources - base stations for mobile networks, broadcasting transmitters, local wireless networks, together with the distribution of EM field from ICT devices, through the appropriate measurement and exposure assessment methods, to the adequate software support for geo-visualisation, the data acquisition and processing.Funded by the Horizon 2020 Framework Programme of the European Union.peer-reviewe

Analysis of the impact of EMF exposure in 5G deployments

Abstract. 5G or fifth-generation mobile network is being developed to meet the massive increase in data and connectivity, and it connects billions of devices via the internet of things. A significant advantage of 5G is the fast response time, also known as latency, which is delivered by faster connections and greater capacity. As 5G is using high frequencies such as above 6GHz, people are concerned about this electromagnetic field (EMF) exposure because it uses a large number of transmitters. The International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP) issued guidelines to protect humans and the environment from radio frequency electro magnetic field (RF-EMF) exposure in the frequency range of 100kHz-300GHz. These constraints are expressed in terms of specific absorption rate (SAR), electric and magnetic field strength, and power density. The goal of this thesis is to analyse the impact of EMF exposure in 5G deployment. The first step was to examine the EMF and its characteristics in general and in 5G in particular. Characteristics of 5G which are relevant to the electromagnetic field were then analyzed. The regulations related to human exposure to EMF were investigated globally, regionally, and in selected countries and compared with the key parameters including incident electric field strength, incident magnetic field strength, and incident power strength. To analyze the impact of the EMF in 5G two methods were used to assess EMF exposure: calculating the minimum distance and assessing the power density. Power density assessments were done for three different frequency bands (700MHz,1800MHz, and 3.5GHz), five different environmental scenarios (indoor hotspot, dense urban, rural, urban macro massive machine-type communications (mMTC), urban micro ultra-reliable low-latency communications (URLLC), and four different scenarios of a typical 5G network (indoor hotspot, dense urban, micro, micro remote radio head (RRH)), and by co-locating the three transmitters in the frequency bands 700MHz,1800MHz and 3.5GHz. The results of the power density assessment in frequency bands 700MHz,1800Mhz, and 3.5GHz show that there is no EMF exposure near the transmitters. However, with the simulation results, we can see that there is an EMF exposure near the transmitter when considering various scenarios such as dense urban, rural, urban macro mMTC, urban micro URLLC, micro and micro remote radio head (RRH). With the simulation results of co-locating transmitters also we can see that there is also EMF exposure close to the transmitters. So, when deploying the 5G network in these environmental conditions, EMF regulations and limitations should be taken into greater account and deployment should be carried out to minimize this exposure. Thus, when planning the 5G network this exposed area should be included as a restricted area that the general public cannot access

Modelling of daily radiofrequency electromagnetic field dose for a prospective adolescent cohort

Introduction: Radiofrequency electromagnetic fields originate from a variety of wireless communication sources operating near and far from the body, making it challenging to quantify daily absorbed dose. In the framework of the prospective cohort SCAMP (Study of Cognition, Adolescents and Mobile Phones), we aimed to characterize RF-EMF dose over a 2-year period. Methods: The SCAMP cohort included 6605 children from greater London, UK at baseline (age 12.1 years; 2014-2016) and 5194 at follow-up (age 14.2; 2016-2018). We estimated the daily dose of RF-EMF to eight tissues including the whole body and whole brain, using dosimetric algorithms for the specific absorption rate transfer into the body. We considered RF-EMF dose from 12 common usage scenarios such as mobile phone calls or data transmission. We evaluated the association between sociodemographic factors (gender, ethnicity, phone ownership and socio-economic status), and the dose change between baseline and follow-up. Results: Whole body dose was estimated at an average of 170 mJ/kg/day at baseline and 178 mJ/kg/day at follow-up. Among the eight tissues considered, the right temporal lobe received the highest daily dose (baseline 1150 mJ/kg/day, follow-up 1520 mJ/kg/day). Estimated daily dose [mJ/kg/day] increased between baseline and follow-up for head and brain related tissues, but remained stable for the whole body and heart. Doses estimated at baseline and follow-up showed low correlation among the 3384 children who completed both assessments. Asian ethnicity (compared to white) and owning a bar phone or no phone (as opposed to a smartphone) were associated with lower estimated whole-body and whole-brain RF-EMF dose, while black ethnicity, a moderate/low socio-economic status (compared to high), and increasing age (at baseline) were associated with higher estimated RF-EMF dose. Conclusion: This study describes the first longitudinal exposure assessment for children in a critical period of development. Dose estimations will be used in further epidemiological analyses for the SCAMP study

Monitoring of electromagnetic field exposure in an international context

Objectives: Electromagnetic field exposure to general people is a public health concern and a topic of debate globally. Electromagnetic field is non-ionizing part of electromagnetic spectrum that can further be divided into extremely low frequency (0- 10 MHz) EMF and radiofrequency (10-300 MHz) EMF based on frequency and corresponding wavelength. Both of these components are of a topic of public debate and a subject of on-going research. The most common sources of extremely low frequency fields are alternating current carried in wiring, household appliances, power lines, electrical wiring, and electrical equipment. Some common sources of radiofrequency fields are mobile phone handsets and mobile phone base stations. Hence the main goals of this thesis were to propose a validated 3D computer model for extremely low frequency magnetic field exposure assessment from overhead powerlines and to develop a novel method of assessing radiofrequency field exposure in different microenvironments. More specifically, this thesis was planned with four different objectives as below: To systematically review the radiofrequency electromagnetic field exposure situation in the European countries based on peer-reviewed articles on spot measurements, personal measurement with trained researchers, and personal measurement with volunteers studies. To test the suitability of microenvironmental measurement surveys with portable exposimeters for monitoring of radiofrequency electromagnetic field levels in various everyday microenvironments in Switzerland. To apply already tested radiofrequency electromagnetic field monitoring protocol to monitor radiofrequency electromagnetic field exposure from Switzerland to international microenvironments of Ethiopia, Nepal, South Africa, Australia and the United States of America To validate a 3D computer model, developed for the calculation of the absolute value of magnetic flux density from an overhead power line, with a 6 measurement campaign conducted every two months for a year time. Methods: For the systematic review for radiofrequency electromagnetic field exposure in European countries, we systematically searched the ISI Web of Science for relevant literature published between 1st January, 2000 and 30th April, 2015 that assessed RF-EMF exposure levels by any of the methods; spot measurements, personal measurement with trained researchers and personal measurement with volunteers. For the non-ionizing radiation monitoring in Switzerland, we used ExpoM-RF device mounted on a backpack to assess radiofrequency electromagnetic field by walking through 51 different outdoor microenvironments from 20 different municipalities in Switzerland. Measurements were conducted between 25th March and 11th July 2014. The non-ionizing radiation monitoring in international microenvironments used the tested protocol from non-ionizing radiation monitoring in Switzerland. The measurements in international microenvironments were taken using two different kinds of portable RF meter called “ExpoM-RF” and “EME Spy 201”. The measurements were conducted either by walking (Switzerland and Nepal) or driving a car with ExpoM-RF device mounted on its roof (Ethiopia, South Africa, Australia, and the United States of America) or mixed walking and driving (Ethiopia, South Africa, Australia). We selected 15 different microenvironments from Switzerland, 18 microenvironments from Ethiopia, 12 microenvironments from Nepal, and 17 microenvironments from South Africa, 24 microenvironments from Australia and 8 microenvironments from the United States of America. Each of the selected microenvironments was measure twice: between 10 March and 14 April 2017. For the powerline validation study, six measurements were taken every two month between January 2015 and December 2015 from two different locations on two different power lines in order to describe variation of extremely low frequency magnetic field exposure by different seasons of the year. The measurements were taken from the selected power lines for at least 48 hours from each line on each measurement day. The measurements were taken using EMDEX II, temperature logger, and ESTEC device. Results: The systematic review yielded twenty one published studies that met our eligibility criteria of which 10 were spot measurements studies, 5 were personal measurement studies with trained researchers (microenvironmental), 5 were personal measurement studies with volunteers and 1 was a mixed methods study combining data collected by volunteers and trained researchers. The mean total RF-EMF exposure for spot measurements in European “Homes” and “Outdoor” microenvironments was 0.29 V/m and 0.54 V/m respectively. Among all European microenvironments in “Transportation”, the highest mean total RF-EMF 1.96 V/m was found in trains of Belgium during 2007 where more than 95% of exposure was contributed by uplink. The non-ionizing radiation monitoring in Switzerland found mean RF-EMF exposure of 0.53 V/m in industrial zones, 0.47 V/m in city centers, 0.32 V/m in central residential areas, 0.25 V/m non-central residential areas, 0.23 V/m in rural centers and rural residential areas, 0.69 V/m in trams, 0.46 V/m in trains and 0.39 V/m in buses. Temporal correlation between first and second measurement of each path was high: 0.83 for total RF-EMF, 0.83 for all five mobile phone downlink bands combined, 0.54 for all five uplink bands combined and 0.79 for broadcasting. The non-ionizing radiation monitoring internationally found mean RF-EMF exposure in all 5 countries varied between 0.94 V/m and 0.05 V/m. Mean total RF-EMF exposure was highest in Australia (0.94 V/m city centers) and lowest in South Africa (0.36 V/m in rural centers and rural residential areas). For outdoor areas major exposure contribution was from mobile phone base station. The mobile phone base stations contributed more than 65% in all measured microenvironments across the 5 countries. The two components of the powerline validation study: feasibility study by a computer model and its validation by field measurement of extremely low frequency magnetic field found the estimated precision of the results to be of the order of 10 % to 25 %, and this large degree precision may be due to errors in the coordinates and heights. The both components of the study helped in identifying the input data necessary for large-scale modeling of magnetic fields from high-voltage power lines and how long-term temporal averages of the field can be computed. Conclusion: The systematic review of radiofrequency electromagnetic field concluded that typical radiofrequency electromagnetic field exposure levels are substantially below regulatory limits. The non-ionizing radiation monitoring in Switzerland demonstrated that microenvironmental surveys using a portable device yields highly repeatable measurements, which allows monitoring time trends of RF-EMF exposure over an extended time period of several years and to compare exposure levels between different types of microenvironments. The non-ionizing radiation monitoring in international microenvironments further support the results from pilot study in Switzerland. The powerline validation study concluded the model agrees well with the measurement values, with average offsets in the range of a few percent. We also found that the precision of the results corresponds to the precision estimated during the pilot study

Not in My Neighborhood: A User Equipment Perspective of Cellular Planning Under Restrictive EMF Limits

The installation of base station (BS) sites is regulated by a variety of laws at international, national, and local levels. While international regulations are already severe, the national and local laws applied in many countries and regions follow precautionary principles and enforce electromagnetic field (EMF) constraints that are even more restrictive. This legal environment results in substantial constraints affecting the planning of cellular networks, as requests for new BS site installation are easily denied by national or local authorities. In this paper, we consider the problem of cellular planning under restrictive EMF limits from the user equipment (UE) viewpoint. We focus on outdoor urban areas and first evaluate the impact of the current, non-optimal network planning at the UE side through a quantitative measurement-driven analysis of the quality of service (QoS) observed by users in heterogeneous, large-scale urban scenarios. We then perform a qualitative assessment of the perceived QoS and generated EMF levels at one UE transferring data from/to a BS based on its position with respect to the serving BS. Finally, we run a what-if analysis by comparing the existing planning with the one where new BS sites can be installed, thanks to a relaxation of the restrictive EMF constraints. Our results clearly show that a cellular planning driven by restrictive EMF constraints forces UE to experience large distances from the serving BS, frequent non-line-of-sight conditions, and poor received signal. In turn, this entails a very negative combination of high electric field activity (EFA) levels generated by the UE and low QoS perceived by the user. We show that, by relaxing the restrictive EMF constraints, the problem could be sensibly mitigated with a positive impact on the UE channel conditions and consequently on the perceived QoS and the UE EFA

Small-Cell Installation in Transportation Infrastructure—A Literature Review

The purpose of this report is to provide information to the Illinois Department of Transportation (IDOT) on small-cell deployment on infrastructure such as light poles and traffic signals. A literature review was conducted on the technical specifications and impacts of small-cell deployment. The report explores the use of small-cell systems and potential hazards of small-cell deployment from an electromagnetic field perspective. A survey was conducted to gather information at a state and local level on current and future trends of small-cell deployment. The information gathered from the survey was combined from a standpoint of current best practices. The report provides recommendations for contractual obligations for both the department of transportation (DOT) and the small-cell provider. The report also provides guidelines on the best locations for small cells from a functional, structural, and aesthetic standpoint. The conclusion is that small-cell deployment is in our near future and the benefits of this technology are broad and mostly unexplored. While challenges exist, with proper contractual risk mitigation, both DOT entities and small-cell providers can reap benefits from the expansion of technology.IDOT-R27-SP41Ope

Gesundheitsrisiko Mobilfunkstrahlung? Was ändert sich mit 5G?

Exposure of the population to radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (RF-EMF) is dominated by the use of wireless communication devices close to the body. Exposure from transmitters far from the body is on average several orders of magnitude below the international guideline values. With increasing mobile data usage and the associated use of higher frequencies for 5G, a densification of the mobile network is to be expected. However, this will not necessarily increase the overall RF-EMF exposure of the population, as mobile phones emit less with better signal quality. 5G is a technological advancement of the previous mobile radio technology with the same biophysical properties. So far, no health effects below the guideline limits have been consistently demonstrated for RF-EMF. Biological effects such as changes of the electrical activity of the brain or the oxidative balance were observed for high local exposure in the range of the exposure guideline limits. According to current knowledge, they do not represent a health risk