Designing and Operating Safe and Secure Transit Systems: Assessing Current Practices in the United States and Abroad, MTI Report 04-05

Public transit systems around the world have for decades served as a principal venue for terrorist acts. Today, transit security is widely viewed as an important public policy issue and is a high priority at most large transit systems and at smaller systems operating in large metropolitan areas. Research on transit security in the United States has mushroomed since 9/11; this study is part of that new wave of research. This study contributes to our understanding of transit security by (1) reviewing and synthesizing nearly all previously published research on transit terrorism; (2) conducting detailed case studies of transit systems in London, Madrid, New York, Paris, Tokyo, and Washington, D.C.; (3) interviewing federal officials here in the United States responsible for overseeing transit security and transit industry representatives both here and abroad to learn about efforts to coordinate and finance transit security planning; and (4) surveying 113 of the largest transit operators in the United States. Our major findings include: (1) the threat of transit terrorism is probably not universal—most major attacks in the developed world have been on the largest systems in the largest cities; (2) this asymmetry of risk does not square with fiscal politics that seek to spread security funding among many jurisdictions; (3) transit managers are struggling to balance the costs and (uncertain) benefits of increased security against the costs and (certain) benefits of attracting passengers; (4) coordination and cooperation between security and transit agencies is improving, but far from complete; (5) enlisting passengers in surveillance has benefits, but fearful passengers may stop using public transit; (6) the role of crime prevention through environmental design in security planning is waxing; and (7) given the uncertain effectiveness of antitransit terrorism efforts, the most tangible benefits of increased attention to and spending on transit security may be a reduction in transit-related person and property crimes

Human behaviour in emergency situations: comparisons between aviation and rail domains

This article presents a comparative review of the knowledge base regarding human behaviour in emergencies for both aviation and rail domains. Generic models of human behaviour in emergency situations are introduced and specific attention is then focussed on methods of behaviour prediction, exhibited behaviours in emergencies and methods of aiding evacuation across both modes of transport. Using established knowledge from the aviation domain, it has been possible to make observations and comparisons about the rail domain. Traditionally, the aviation domain has been a major focus of research attention and this is used to inform and interpret the rail domain. By drawing comparisons across these domains for human behaviour in emergency situations, the observations are discussed along with recommendations for future policies/planning for emergencies and future research areas

Analysis of Walking-Edge Effect in Train Station Evacuation Scenarios: A Sustainable Transportation Perspective

Due to the highly developed rail transit over the past decades, the phenomena of complex individual self-organized behaviors and mass crowd dynamics have become a great concern in the train station. In order to understand passengers&rsquo walking-edge effect and analyze the relationship between the layout and sustainable service abilities of the train station, a heuristics-based social force model is proposed to elaborate the crowd dynamics. Several evacuation scenarios are implemented to describe the walking-edge effect in a train station with the evacuation efficiency, pedestrian flow, and crowd density map. The results show that decentralizing crowd flow can significantly increase the evacuation efficiency in different scenarios. When the exits are far away from the central axis of the railway station, the walking-edge effect has little influence on the evacuation efficiency. Obstacles can guide the movement of passengers by channelizing pedestrian flows. In addition, a wider side exit of the funnel-shaped corridors can promote walking-edge effect and decrease the pressure among a congested crowd. Besides providing a modified social force model with considering walking-edge effect, several suggestions are put forward for managers and architects of the train station in designing sustainable layouts. Document type: Articl

'What works' in reducing sexual harassment and sexual offences on public transport nationally and internationally: a rapid evidence assessment

In Britain, public transport is generally very safe and serious sexual assaults are rare. However, research has found that around 15% of women and girls have been subjected to unwanted sexual behaviour on the London transport network, the vast majority of which goes unreported (Transport for London [TfL], 2013a). This document reports the findings of a rapid evidence assessment, conducted on behalf go the British Transport Police, to identify the main initiatives that are being used to reduce sexual harassment and assault on public transport nationally and internationally, and whether these 'work'. Literature searches and a ‘call for information’ identified 1889 potential source materials, 191 of which were ultimately deemed relevant. The main intervention approaches are identified, and where available, the intervention effectiveness is evaluated. Overall, it was found that there is very little rigorous evaluation of these initiatives, and therefore much of the evidence is based upon the views of passengers, staff and transport managers. Recommendations, including thorough evaluation of a range of interventions, including staffing, policing, CCTV and passenger information, are made

Self-reported likely behaviour of rail passengers during an emergency evacuation-A case study of Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

Prior knowledge on how passengers behave during a potential emergency evacuation could be advantageous in designing efficient crowd management and emergency procedures. This study examines the likely behaviours of Malaysian passengers during a potential future emergency evacuation situation. Four key behaviours, i.e., reactive, proactive, cooperative and competitive behaviours, were considered. A questionnaire survey was conducted at one major rail transit terminal in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia to collect the data. All 301 questionnaire responses displayed non-uniformity in their likely behaviour. Results explained that the passengers are more likely to be proactive (e.g., move to exit immediately as soon as the warning siren is sounded) than reactive (e.g., go to assembly point after being instructed) during the pre-evacuation. Further, people are more likely to be cooperative (e.g., help other people who may have difficulties in getting out) than competitive (e.g., push or shove other peoples to get out quickly) during the evacuation. In terms of demographic influences on behaviours, results demonstrated that there could be significant differences in certain behaviours between males and females and between different age groups. The findings of this study provide valuable information for developing models for simulating passengers' evacuation at rail transit terminals. Further, the managers of emergency response could utilize such data and outcomes in devising effective crowd management strategies and developing appropriate training and educational campaigns.This work was supported by the Universiti Sains Malaysia , under the Research University (RUI) Grant Scheme , ( 1001/PAWAM/8014022 ).Scopu

Reducing risk and injury to transit officers

This thesis examines whether an understanding of the communication and safety culture of transit officers, who form part of a security section of a large state Rail Transport Organisation (RTO), can lead to strategies to reduce their risk of injury. The core functions of the transit officer position are passenger safety and customer service. This puts the officers in the front line of defence against the antisocial behaviour from some patrons that occurs regularly on the railway system. Like urban railways the world over, this anti-social behaviour can range from bad language to severe violence. Whilst these officers are not police, they do have many similar powers to police, such as the ‘power of arrest’ to deal with certain offences committed on railway property. A key difference, however, is that transit officers tend to deal with issues as they arise, whereas the police are more likely to respond to an event after its occurrence. Additionally, unlike many policing organisations, transit officers are not equipped with a taser or firearm, but rely on their communication skills and physical training to defuse a potentially threatening situation, and a baton and pepper spray for self-defence. Over the years an unacceptable number of injuries have been sustained by the RTO transit officers in dealing with anti-social behaviour. Whilst the organisation requires that statistics for incidents and injuries remain confidential, it is nonetheless known that the incident rate is above that of workers in other traditionally hazardous industries, such as construction. Further, surveys conducted on behalf of the RTO also indicate that passengers feel less safe at night due to the anti-social behaviour evident on the rail system. This raises issues about the safety culture. The term ‘safety culture’ became important in safety science as a result of accident enquiries, analysis of safety failures and organisational disasters which attributed fault to the organisation’s internal attitudes to safety. Many of these organisations had comprehensive safety systems in place; however these investigations identified the importance of human factors in the equation. Safety systems did not mean that the organisation had a culture of safety. To study the culture of a group it is necessary to understand their basic assumptions, espoused values and the artefacts that the group holds as important. These play a significant part in determining people’s behaviour, their adherence to safety procedures and communication in the workplace. In terms of the safety culture on the RTO trains, transit officers have commonly said that anyone wanting to understand the provocation and violence that they deal with in their work environment would need to work alongside them. This research responds to that challenge to understand the cultural and communication dynamics that exist within the transit officer cadre and in exchanges between passenger and transit officers. An ethnographic protocol was chosen, which in this instance involved the researcher participating directly in the workplace and building close relationships with the transit officers. Recognising the significance of obtaining ‘insider status’ the researcher commenced the fieldwork by joining a new intake of transit officers embarking upon the twelve-week training program. Importantly, taking this path enabled the researcher to obtain credibility amongst the transit officers through their shared experiences. Following graduation from training, the researcher spent a further month in the closed circuit television monitoring room obtaining an overview of the many activities involving transit officers that occur during the night throughout the metropolitan rail system. From this communication heart, the Shift Commander can communicate directly by radio with all transit officers; and the video operators can monitor activities from cameras which are situated on all railway infrastructure. The researcher spent the following four months immersed in the transit officers’ world. This included working alongside the officers during the evening and night, being rostered on their shifts and engaging with the variety of their duties on trains, stations and delta vehicle patrols. The information gleaned during this time became the basis of the formal interviews which took place at the end of that period. The researcher later met with ‘best-practice’ transit policing organisations to determine what strategies these organisations had in place to reduce rail officer injury rates. The collaborating organisations included transit policing agencies in the United States, Canada, Britain and interstate Australia. Information obtained during the RTO field work was evaluated against safety practices and the safety culture in these high performing organisations. Recommendations to reduce the risk of injury for transit officers and improve communication practices within the transit officer cadre were subsequently submitted to the industry partner for consideration. A safer workplace for transit officers would reduce transit officers’ personal suffering, leaving more transit officers at work, reducing workers’ compensation costs, and providing a safer environment for passengers

An analysis of human behaviour which can cause fatalities in the bus and train tunnel during a tunnel fire event

This dissertation develops the analysis of human behaviour which can cause fatalities in the Bus and Train Tunnel during a tunnel fire event. The project aim is to utilise the Root Cause Analysis framework to produce recommendations for the BaT tunnel design with respect to human behavioural fire safety. Tunnel fire safety is a young area of research. There is much ambiguity in tunnel fire science and includes many unanswered questions such as; human behaviour in relation to tunnel fire emergencies with a particular reference to tunnel operators and emergency services. The Root Cause Analysis framework was utilised to discover the underlying causes of fatality within a tunnel due to human behaviour. The framework allows for the root causes to be discovered and ensures that recommendations are produced for each event that has the potential to cause loss of life. Throughout the study publically available information surrounding the BaT tunnel was documented. A literature review was then conducted into the tunnel operations and fire safety within tunnels. Following the literature review, extensive data gathering was conducted to include statistics on historic tunnel fires and case studies that are applicable to the aims of the study. A root cause analysis was carried out pertaining to tunnel fire safety within tunnels. The root cause analysis was conducted upon a specified tunnel fire design which utilizes publically available information along with assumptions that are based on prescriptive measures. The assumed tunnel fire design root cause analysis was undertaken on both the busway and the railway. The Root Cause Analysis highlighted that both the busway and the railway had identical root causes. The causes of fatality were discovered to be due to Communication breakdowns, slow reaction times, inadequate understanding and inadequate maintenance. The ways recommended to mitigate these risks is through intensive training of all staff, educating the public through marketing and the establishment of sound management within well-defined processes. There are many limitations involved within the analysis which cause the recommendations to be incomplete. Hence, before implementation of the recommendations the study should be carried out upon complete design data. The Root cause analysis is an effective framework that could be used to find the causes of risk and failure within the BaT tunnel. The framework was effective in identifying the root causes of the defined scenario. For a more complete analysis, more scenarios should be analysed, with true design data and including the modelling of the ventilation system where possible

Automated Transit Networks (ATN): A Review of the State of the Industry and Prospects for the Future, MTI Report 12-31

The concept of Automated Transit Networks (ATN) - in which fully automated vehicles on exclusive, grade-separated guideways provide on-demand, primarily non-stop, origin-to-destination service over an area network – has been around since the 1950s. However, only a few systems are in current operation around the world. ATN does not appear “on the radar” of urban planners, transit professionals, or policy makers when it comes to designing solutions for current transit problems in urban areas. This study explains ATN technology, setting it in the larger context of Automated Guideway Transit (AGT); looks at the current status of ATN suppliers, the status of the ATN industry, and the prospects of a U.S.-based ATN industry; summarizes and organizes proceedings from the seven Podcar City conferences that have been held since 2006; documents the U.S./Sweden Memorandum of Understanding on Sustainable Transport; discusses how ATN could expand the coverage of existing transit systems; explains the opportunities and challenges in planning and funding ATN systems and approaches for procuring ATN systems; and concludes with a summary of the existing challenges and opportunities for ATN technology. The study is intended to be an informative tool for planners, urban designers, and those involved in public policy, especially for urban transit, to provide a reference for history and background on ATN, and to use for policy development and research

Accessing public transport, a comparative study of Berlin and London

Berlin and London are both major European capital cities with extensive public transport networks. The main motivation for this study stemmed from my extensive experience travelling around independently in both cities on public transport as a totally blind person. I wanted to gain a much greater insight into, and understanding of, the various practical and policy issues, which are involved in making the Berlin and London public transport networks as accessible as possible to people with a wide variety of physical and sensory impairments. Accessibility is defined as the physical access passengers have e.g. walking time to their nearest bus stop or railway station, and once there, how easy is it for them to board and alight from the vehicles and reach their destination i.e. frequency of service, and direct services versus the need to change en route. The provision of other soft factors such as good quality customer information systems, both at the stations or stops and onboard the vehicles, is also discussed. Accessibility is an important aspect which may help to explain some aggregate trends and differences in public transport ridership in Berlin and London. These are further investigated by examining the market share of public transport and the passenger trip rates per head of population in Berlin and London, to analyse the explanatory factors behind the trends in both cities and identify possible transfers in good practice between them. This may include such phenomena as differences in fare levels for users e.g. cash fares, travelcards and prepay smartcards, as opposed to concessionary fare schemes. Some other significant relationships concerned with household size, levels of cycling and car availability are analysed through numerous cross tabulations using the Mobilität in Deutschland (MiD 2002) and National Travel Survey (NTS 2002-2008) aggregated data sets