Characterisation of High Current Density Resonant Tunneling Diodes for THz Emission Using Photoluminescence Spectroscopy

We discuss the numerical simulation of high current density InGaAs/AlAs/InP resonant tunneling diodes with a view to their optimization for application as THz emitters. We introduce a figure of merit based upon the ratio of maximum extractable THz power and the electrical power developed in the chip. The aim being to develop high efficiency emitters as output power is presently limited by catastrophic failure. A description of the interplay of key parameters follows, with constraints on strained layer epitaxy introduced. We propose an optimized structure utilizing thin barriers paired with a comparatively wide quantum well that satisfies strained layer epitaxy constraints

Resonant tunnelling diode epitaxial wafer design manufacture and characterisation

Resonant tunnelling diodes realised using the AlAs/InGaAs lattice match to InP substrates have demonstrated promising performance as THz sources. The main limitations to deployment are imposed by the device output power, which is critically dependent on the structural quality of the epitaxial material. Future design and growth optimization require tools to characterize the thin RTD active region on different length scales and to create a link between design variables and device performance. This thesis reports a combined non-destructive characterisation scheme based on photoluminescence spectroscopy (PL), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and photoluminescence excitation (PLE) spectroscopy. The scheme improves the accuracy and reproducibility of all the RTD design parameters to provide accurate feedback for future epitaxy optimization both in R&D and in future manufacturing. A new PL technique is also proposed to investigate RTD structural imperfection on a length scale comparable with the RTD device mesa area, allowing an investigation into important growth imperfections affecting the device performance and reproducibility. Alternative RTD designs made by substituting the ternary InGaAs well with an InAs/GaAs superlattice are proposed and demonstrated in the last part of the thesis. Design criteria and simulations are reported and improvements in the structure epitaxial quality are highlighted by PL

ICCG-10: Tenth International Conference on Crystal Growth. Oral presentation abstracts

Oral presentation abstracts from the tenth International Conference on Crystal Growth (ICCG) (Aug. 16-21, 1992) are provided. Topics discussed at the conference include superconductors, semiconductors, nucleation, crystal growth mechanisms, and laser materials. Organizing committees, ICCG advisory board and officers, and sponsors of the conference are also included

Ordered nanostructures on silicon substrates:from the top-down to the bottom-up

Silicon is today the main material used in electronics. It is a very advanced and mature technology. It is therefore clear that new technological concepts and materials should be introduced through the integration on the silicon platform. III-V semiconductors, such as GaAs and InAs, are high performance semiconductors, with direct bandgap and high carrier mobility, what makes them very prominent candidates for future electronics and optoelectronics. Lattice, thermal and polarity mismatch have been for decades limiting their integration on Si in the form of thin film technology. The nanowire geometry brings new prospects in this direction by reducing the contact area between mismatched materials,. Now, while growth of defect-free III-V structures on silicon is important, use in applications requires the nanostructures to be placed deterministically following a certain design/order. In this thesis we have studied different mechanisms to obtain ordered nanostructures on a silicon substrate, with the goal of increasing its functionality. The core part of this work was dedicated to the integration of III-V nanowires on Si in the formof ordered arrays. We have considered both GaAs and InAs nanowires. This process has several requirements: substrate fabrication and the growth process should be CMOS compatible, nanowires within the arrays should be grown vertically with a yield close to 100% and nanowires should be clones-looking and performing the same. An additional point to consider is that the fabrication process should be compatible with large scale techniques. The substrate requirements for obtaining ordered arrays of Ga-assisted GaAs nanowires on silicon were identified. In particular, we focused on the initial stages of growth, that turned to be key for achieving a high yield in the arrays. We found that the positioning of the Ga droplet within the predefined holes on the substrate determined whether the nanowire would grow perpendicularly to the substrate. Our HRTEMstudies on the titled nanowires show that the initial nanowire seeds seem to nucleate at the corner of the nanoscale holes. Instead, the crystal seeds of vertical nanowires occupy homogeneously the nanoscale holes. Achieving high yield in the growth of GaAs arrays on silicon also allowed us to study their evolution in time. We demonstrated that there is an incubation time for nanowires to start growing. This incubation time is different from NW to NWand leads to a relatively broad length distribution. We proposed a solution and showed how an increase in the supersaturation in the Ga droplet leads to the formation of homogeneous arrays. Growth of InAs nanowires in ordered arrays on silicon was based on the concept of guided growth. We used a SiO2 nanotube templates to promote vertical growth. Due to the directionality of MBE, achieving growth inside a nanotube was especially challenging. Our results provided new insights on the role of different pathways of the In and As4 adatoms during growth. In this part, large scale patterning by phase shift photolithography was demonstrated as an alternative to the conventionally used electron beam lithography. Stain etching method for producing porous silicon was applied on top-bottom fabricated Si micropillars. This led to geometrically driven electrochemical dissolution of silicon trough the center of the microstructure forming microtubes. The optical properties were also studied and used to produce functional 3D LED

Photoluminescence study of ZnO doped with nitrogen and arsenic

In this work, the optical properties of ZnO doped with arsenic and nitrogen were studied. The ZnO samples were grown by Metalorganic Chemical Vapor Deposition (MOCVD). The solubility of nitrogen in the ZnO films, as well as its activation upon annealing, was also investigated. Hydrogen is known as a major source for passivation of the acceptors in ZnO:N. Therefore, it is crucial to dissociate the complex(es) formed by nitrogen and hydrogen and diffuse out the hydrogen in order to prevent the reformation of such complexes. High temperatures (≥ 600 C) are required for these purposes. In order to effectively remove the hydrogen impurities from the sample, it is important to know the optical fingerprints of hydrogen and its thermal stability. Therefore, the effects of annealing and hydrogen plasma treatment on bulk ZnO (hydrothermally grown) were first studied. The use of bulk material for this purpose was motivated by the well-resolved photoluminescence (PL) lines observed for bulk ZnO, which allow the identification of the different lines related to hydrogen after plasma treatment. Annealing at 850 C was effective for the removal of most of the hydrogen related transitions in the near-band-edge emission. Also, additional transitions at ~3.364 eV and ~3.361 eV were observed after hydrogen plasma treatment, which were ascribed to hydrogen-Zn vacancy complexes. In this work, a comparative study of the annealing ambient and temperature on ZnO films grown on GaAs substrate, using diethyl zinc (DEZn) and tertiary butanol (TBOH), showed that arsenic diffuses in the ZnO films and gives a shallow level in the band gap, which is involved in an acceptor-bound exciton line at 3.35 eV. This shallow level is visible when annealing is performed in oxygen, but not when annealing is performed in nitrogen, and indeed only for annealing temperatures around 550 C. However, annealing in either ambient also causes zinc to diffuse from the ZnO films into the GaAs substrate, rendering the electrical properties deduced from Hall measurements ambiguous. For ZnO:N, NO was used as both oxygen and nitrogen sources. Monitoring the concentration of nitrogen, carbon and hydrogen in the ZnO films, the formation of different complexes from these impurities were deduced. Furthermore, an investigation of the effect of annealing on the concentrations of impurities showed that their out- diffusion was strongly dependent on the crystalline quality of the ZnO films. For porous ZnO films, obtained at low growth temperatures (≤310 C), the out-diffusion of impurities was efficient, whereas for films grown at higher temperatures, which have improved crystalline quality, the out-diffusion was practically nonexistent. The out-diffusion of unwanted impurities may activate the nitrogen dopant in the ZnO films, as was confirmed by the PL measurements on the different samples grown at different temperatures. PL transitions at ~3.24 eV and ~3.17 eV were related to substitutional NO. These transitions were more dominant in the spectra of samples grown at low temperatures. An additional transition at ~3.1 eV was assigned to a donor-acceptor pair transition involving VZn, instead of NO, as previously reported

Gruppe III-Nitrid basierte UVC LEDs und Laser mit transparenten AlGaN:Mg Schichten und Tunneldioden, hergestellt mittels MOVPE

In this work, AlGaN-based light-emitting diodes (LEDs) and lasers with emission wavelengths in the deep ultraviolet (UVC) spectral range are produced, analyzed, and optimized. Here, the focus is on the UV transparency of the structures, enabling high light extraction efficiency for UVC LEDs and being a necessary condition for UVC laser diodes, however at the same time challenging due to low electrical conductivity. AlN and AlGaN layers as well as heterostructures for devices are grown by metalorganic vapor phase epitaxy. A systematic analysis of the influence of individual layer properties on the emission properties of LEDs and lasers is provided. Defect reduced (ELO) AlN layers on sapphire and AlN substrates serve as basis for the epitaxial growth of AlN and AlGaN layers. By analyzing the influence of substrate offcut on surface morphology, atomically smooth AlN layers are reproducibly obtained on both types of substrates for offcut angles < 0.17°. For the realization of n-type AlGaN:Si cladding layers, the influence of growth parameters such as temperature, gas phase composition and growth rate was separately analyzed. Highly conductive, uniform and smooth AlGaN:Si layers were obtained by the implementation of a superlattice concept with 10 s growth interruptions to increase the diffusion length of metal adatoms. Despite high compressive strain, pseudomorphic laser structures with three-fold quantum wells were obtained with emission wavelength at 270 nm by the choice of Al0.7Ga0.3N waveguide composition, whereas lower aluminum contents lead to partial strain relaxation. In addition, the formation of V-pits acting as scattering centers in the waveguide was successfully reduced by increasing the growth temperature from 900 ℃ to 1080 ℃. Finally, the influence of these individual optimization steps on laser properties was analyzed. Optically pumped UVC lasers with laser threshold, spectral linewidth reduction, and TE polarized emission above threshold were shown near 270 nm. By reducing the surface roughness, the laser thresholds were reduced by a factor of seven. Electrical injection mechanisms were experimentally analyzed by electroluminescence measurements on transparent UVC LEDs with waveguide system, and combined with simulations of optical modes and the corresponding losses. By the variation of composition and layer thickness of waveguide and cladding layers an optimized heterostructure design for UVC laser diodes with 200 nm thick Al0.76Ga0.24N:Mg cladding layers was found. This design simultaneously enables efficient carrier injection and sufficient mode confinement with low optical losses of 40 cm-1. As an unconventional alternative to resistive AlGaN:Mg layers, tunnel junctions (TJ) in reverse bias configuration were implemented into the UVC LED heterostructure for efficient injection of holes. By the initial optimization of individual TJ components, such as doping concentrations at the TJ interface or the composition of an interlayer, the first demonstration of functional TJ-LEDs with AlGaN tunnel homojunction was achieved, as well as the first demonstration of AlGaN-based TJ-LEDs grown by metalorganic vapor phase epitaxy. Based on these devices, the interlayer thickness was varied to exploit polarization charges at the interface in order to reduce the space charge region width and enhance tunneling probabilities. Using 8 nm thick GaN interlayers, a reduction of the operation voltage by 20 V was achieved, as well as TJ-LEDs with external quantum efficiencies of 2.3% and emission powers of 6.6 mW at 268 nm and 0.26 mW at 232 nm.In dieser Arbeit werden AlGaN-basierte Leuchtdioden (LEDs) und Laser mit Emissionswellenlängen im tiefen ultravioletten (UVC) Spektralbereich hergestellt, charakterisiert und optimiert. Dabei liegt die UV-Transparenz der Strukturen im Fokus, die hohe Lichtextraktionseffizienz für UVC LEDs ermöglicht und eine notwendige Bedingung für UVC Laserdioden darstellt, gleichzeitig aber aufgrund geringer elektrischer Leitfähigkeit herausfordernd ist. AlN und AlGaN Schichten sowie Heterostrukturen für Bauelemente werden mittels metallorganischer Gasphasenepitaxie hergestellt und der Einfluss einzelner Schichteigenschaften auf die Emissionseigenschaften von LEDs und Lasern systematisch analysiert. Defektreduzierte (ELO) AlN Schichten auf Saphirsubstraten sowie AlN Substrate dienen als Basis für das epitaktische Wachstum von AlN und AlGaN Schichten. Durch die Analyse des Einflusses des Substratfehlschnittes auf die Oberflächenmorphologie konnten atomar glatte AlN Schichten auf beiden Substrattypen für Fehlschnittwinkel < 0.17° reproduzierbar hergestellt werden. Die AlGaN:Si Wachstumsparameter Temperatur, Gasphasenzusammensetzung und Wachstumsrate wurden separat variiert. Leitfähige, homogene und glatte AlGaN:Si Schichten konnten durch die Umsetzung eines Übergitterkonzeptes mit je 10 s Wachstumsunterbrechung zur Erhöhung der Diffusionslänge von Metalladatomen realisiert werden. Pseudomorphe Laserstrukturen mit Dreifach-Quantenfilmen und Emissionswellenlängen von 270 nm wurden trotz stark kompressiver Verspannung mittels Al0.7Ga0.3N Wellenleitern realisiert, wogegen geringere Aluminiumgehalte zu Teilrelaxation der Verspannung führen. Zudem konnte die Ausbildung von V-Pits als Streuzentren im Wellenleiter durch Erhöhung der Wachstumstemperatur von 900 ℃ auf 1080 ℃ erfolgreich reduziert werden. Schließlich wurde der Einfluss dieser einzelnen Optimierungsschritte auf die Lasereigenschaften analysiert. Optisch gepumpte UVC Laser mit spektraler Einschnürung, Laserschwelle sowie TE polarisierter Emission nahe 270 nm wurden gezeigt. Durch Reduktion der Oberflächenrauheit konnte die Laserschwelle schrittweise um den Faktor sieben reduziert werden. Elektrische Injektion wurde mittels Elektrolumineszenz an transparenten UVC LEDs mit Wellenleitersystem experimentell analysiert und mit Simulationen optischer Moden und deren Verluste kombiniert. Durch die Variation von Zusammensetzung und Schichtdicke von Wellenleiter- bzw. Mantelschichten konnte ein optimiertes Heterostrukturdesign für UVC Laserdioden mit 200 nm dicken Al0.76Ga0.24N:Mg Mantelschichten gefunden werden, welches gleichzeitig effiziente Ladungsträgerinjektion und ausreichenden Modeneinschluss mit geringen optischen Verlusten von 40 cm-1 ermöglicht. Als unkonventionelle Alternative zu resistiven AlGaN:Mg Schichten wurden Tunneldioden (TJ) zur Löcherinjektion implementiert. Durch die anfängliche Optimierung individueller Komponenten wie der Zusammensetzung einer Zwischenschicht oder der Dotierlevel an der Grenzfläche, wurde die erste Demonstration AlGaN-basierter TJLEDs ermöglicht, die mit metallorganischer Gasphasenepitaxie gewachsen wurden. Auf dieser Basis wurde die Zwischenschichtdicke gezielt variiert, um Polarisationsladungen an der Grenzfläche zur Reduktion der Raumladungszonenbreite auszunutzen und die Tunnelwahrscheinlichkeit zu erhöhen. Mit 8 nm GaN Zwischenschichten wurde eine Spannungsreduktion um 20 V erreicht, sowie TJ-LEDs mit externer Quanteneffizienz von 2,3% und Emissionsleistung von 6,6 mW bei 268 nm und 0,26 mW bei 232 nm

X-ray scattering studies of compound semiconductors

In this thesis, techniques of high resolution x-ray diffraction, topography and grazing incidence reflectivity have been employed in order to gain information on compound semiconductors. A recent growth technique. Vertical Gradient Freeze (VGF), has been investigated for 2" InP wafers, and been found to produce virtually dislocation- free crystals. In the one wafer where dislocations have been imaged, they have a density of ~200cm(^-2), with Burgers vectors lying in the plane of the wafer. This is in contrast to topographs of Liquid Encapsulated Czochralski (LEG) InP, where a dislocation density of up to 6.10'(^4)cm(^-2) was observed at the wafer periphery. No growth striations were observed in VGF samples, implying a planar solid-melt interface. VGF GaAs wafers are seen to be virtually dislocation free when Si doped, have dislocation densities of 900cm(^-2) when undoped and 1200cm(^-2) when Zn doped. Triple axis diffraction measurements showed a variation in tilts between/samples, but no strain variation. The tilt variation was attributed to the polishing process. Asymmetric scans showed a variation in strain at high tilts. These data have been used to form a model for the crystal surface: mosaic blocks of perfect crystal surrounded by low angle boundaries consisting of rows of edge dislocations. During the polishing process, these blocks are physically rotated, evidence for which is supplied from analysis of the specular part of reflectivity scans. Specular and diffuse reflectivity scans on InP substrates have been simulated using the Distorted Wave Born Approximation (DWBA). In all cases a 30Å thick oxide layer was identified on the sample surface. In order to obtain a good simulation for transverse scans at two values of q(_z), it was necessary to include a grading in electron density at the top surface. Epitaxial layers of Hg(_1-x)Mn(_x)Te (MMT) grown by the Interdiffused Multilayer Process (IMP) on GaAs with a CdTe buffer layer have been characterised using double and triple axis diffraction. Although reasonable compositional uniformity was observed across the wafers (from 0.3%mm(^-1)), dynamical simulations of pseudo-triple axis scans showed a grading in composition with depth. It was observed that the crystalline perfection deteriorated with increased Mn fraction. The MMT and CdTe layers were almost fully relaxed, and were found to have dislocation densities of l0(^7)-l0(^9)cm(^-2). In one sample the presence of zinc blende MnTe was established using double axis diffraction. Finally, the high intensity of the European Synchrotron Radiation Facility (ESRF) has been exploited in order to topograph highly absorbing materials. The effect of heater failure in the growth of GaAs in space has been shown to produce high levels of strain and twinning. It has also been shown topographically that contact with the crucible during the growth of GaInSb from the melt leads to increased strain, so de-wetting phenomena improve crystalline growth

3D mapping of nanoscale physical properties of VCSEL devices

There is clear lack of methods that allows studies of the nanoscale structure of the VCSEL devices1 that are mainly focused on the roughness of the DBR, or using FIB cross-sectioning and TEM analysis of failed devices to observe the mechanism of the degradation. Here we present a recently developed advanced approach that combines Ar-ion nano-cross-sectioning with material sensitive SPM2 to reveal the internal structure of the VCSEL across the whole stack of top and bottom DBR including active area. We report for the first time the direct observation of local mechanical properties, electric potential and conductance through the 3D VCSEL stack. In order to achieve this, we use beam exit cross-section polishing that creates an oblique section with sub-nm surface roughness through the whole VCSEL structure that is fully suitable for the subsequent cross-sectional SPM (xSPM) studies. We used three different SPM measurement modes – nanomechanical local elastic moduli mapping via Ultrasonic Force Microscopy (UFM) 3, surface potential mapping via Kelvin Probe Force Microscopy (KPFM) and mapping of injected current (local conductivity) via Scanning Spreading Resistance Microscopy (SSRM). xSPM allowed to observe the resulting geometry of the whole device, including active cavity multiple quantum wells (MQW), to obtain profiles of differential doping of the DBR stack, profile of electric potential in the active cavity, and spatial variation of current injection in the individual QW in MQW area. Moreover, by applying forward bias to the VCSEL to initiate laser emission, we were able to observe distribution of the potential in the working regime, paving the way to understanding the 3D current flow in the complete device. Finally, we use finite element modelling (FEM) that confirm the experimental results that of the measurements of the local doping profiles and charge distribution in the active area of the VCSEL around the oxide current confinement aperture. While we show that the new xSPM methodology allowed advanced in-situ studies of VCSELs, it establishes a highly efficient characterisation platform for much broader area of compound semiconductor materials and devices. REFERENCES. 1. D. T. Mathes, R. Hull, K. Choquette, K. Geib, A. Allerman, J. Guenter, B. Hawkins and B. Hawthorne, in Vertical-Cavity Surface-Emitting Lasers Vii, edited by C. Lei and S. P. Kilcoyne (2003), Vol. 4994, pp. 67-82. 2. A. J. Robson, I. Grishin, R. J. Young, A. M. Sanchez, O. V. Kolosov and M. Hayne, Acs Applied Materials & Interfaces 5 (8), 3241-3245 (2013). 3. J. L. Bosse, P. D. Tovee, B. D. Huey and O. V. Kolosov, Journal of Applied Physics 115 (14), 144304 (2014)

Optical Properties of Wurtzite InN and Related Alloys

In dieser Arbeit werden die optischen Eigenschaften von Wurtzitstruktur InN und verwandten ternären InGaN und AlInN, sowie quaternären AlInGaN Legierungen untersucht. Der Schwerpunkt wird auf die Charakterisierung mittels spektroskopischer Ellipsometrie gelegt. Die auf Si(111) Substraten gewachsenen InN-Proben und die Kohlstoff dotierten InN-Proben sind im Spektralbereich vom mittleren Infrarot bis hin zum Vakuum-Ultraviolett untersucht worden. Die Elektronenkonzentration für die InN-Proben wird durch selbstkonsistentes Lösen (der Ellipsometriedaten Analyse im Infrarotbereich und der Anpassung des Absorption Ansatz) bestimmt. Die intrinsische spannungsfreie Bandlücke für InN Proben wird unter Berücksichtigung von Vielteilcheneffekten wie der Bandlückenrenormierung und der Burstein-Moss-Verschiebung, sowie dem Einfluss der Verzerrung für die Bandlücke bestimmt. Die k*p-Methode wird verwendet, um die Verschiebung der Bandlücke (beeinflusst durch Verzerrung) zu berechnen. Es wird demonstriert, dass eine Erhöhung des Kohlenstofftetrabromid (CBr4) Drucks während des Wachstumsprozess, die Elektronenkonzentration in den InN-Proben erhöht. Die Indium-verwandten Legierungen wurden im Spektralbereich des nahen Infrarot bis zum Vakuum-Ultraviolett untersucht. Das analytische Modell, der dielektrichen Funktion im Spektralbereich 1-10 eV, für die Indium-verwandte Legierungen wird präsentiert. Durch die Anpassung des analytischen Modells an die experimentellen dielektrischen Funktionen, werden die Bandlücke und die Übergangsenergien im Hochenergie-Bereich evaluiert. Die Bowing-Parameter der spannungsfreien Bandlücke für die ternären Systeme InGaN und AlInN werden bestimmt. Es wird demonstriert, dass der Bowing-Parameter für AlInN von der Komposition der Legierung abhängig ist. Die Kenntnis von Bowing-Parametern für die ternären Legierungen ermöglicht die Entwicklung einer empirischen Gleichung, zur Berechnung der Bandlücke in quaternären Legierungen. Alle experimentell durch Ellipsometrie bestimten Bandlücken der untersuchten Legierungen werden durch ab-initio Daten unterstützt.In this work, optical properties of wurtzite structure InN and related ternary InGaN and AlInN, as well as quaternary AlInGaN alloys were investigated. The spectroscopic ellipsometer was used as the main characterization tool for the analysis of the optical properties. The InN samples grown on Si(111) substrates, as well as carbon doped InN samples were investigated from mid-infrared up to vacuum-ultraviolet spectral range. The electron concentration for InN samples were evaluated by solving a self-consistent problem that includes the IR-SE ellipsometry data analysis and the imaginary dielectric function around the band gap calculation. The intrinsic strain-free band-gap was estimated after taking into consideration a band-gap renormalization and Burstein-Moss shift, as well as a strain influence on the band gap. The k*p method was used to calculate the strain induced band-gap shift. From the analysis, it was shown that for the carbon doped InN samples the electron concentration increases linearly by increasing the CBr4 dopant pressure during the MBE growth process. The In-related alloys were investigated from near-infrared up to vacuum-ultraviolet spectral range. The analytical model of the dielectric function in the spectral range 1-10 eV was presented. From the fit of the analytical model to the experimental dielectric functions, the band gaps and high-energy inter-band transitions were estimated. The strain-free band-gap bowing parameters for ternary InGaN and AlInN alloys were obtained. It was demonstrated, that the bowing parameter for AlInN is composition dependent. With the knowledge of the bowing parameters of ternary alloys, it was possible to develop an empirical equation that allows to estimate the band gap for a quaternary AlInGaN alloy. All experimentally obtained band gaps are in good agreement with the ab-initio calculated values