Performance Assessment of Routing Protocols for IoT/6LoWPAN Networks

The Internet of Things (IoT) proposes a disruptive communication paradigm that allows smart objects to exchange data among themselves to reach a common goal. IoT application scenarios are multiple and can range from a simple smart home lighting system to fully controlled automated manufacturing chains. In the majority of IoT deployments, things are equipped with small devices that can suffer from severe hardware and energy restrictions that are responsible for performing data processing and wireless communication tasks. Thus, due to their features, communication networks that are used by these devices are generally categorized as Low Power and Lossy Networks (LLNs). The considerable variation in IoT applications represents a critical issue to LLN networks, which should offer support to different requirements as well as keeping reasonable quality-of-service (QoS) levels. Based on this challenge, routing protocols represent a key issue in IoT scenarios deployment. Routing protocols are responsible for creating paths among devices and their interactions. Hence, network performance and features are highly dependent on protocol behavior. Also, based on the adopted protocol, the support for some specific requirements of IoT applications may or may not be provided. Thus, a routing protocol should be projected to attend the needs of the applications considering the limitations of the device that will execute them. Looking to attend the demand of routing protocols for LLNs and, consequently, for IoT networks, the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) has designed and standardized the IPv6 Routing Protocol for Low Power and Lossy Networks (RPL). This protocol, although being robust and offering features to fulfill the need of several applications, still presents several faults and weaknesses (mainly related to its high complexity and memory requirement), which limits its adoption in IoT scenarios. An alternative to RPL, the Lightweight On-demand Ad Hoc Distancevector Routing Protocol – Next Generation (LOADng) has emerged as a less complicated routing solution for LLNs. However, the cost of its simplicity is paid for with the absence of adequate support for a critical set of features required for many IoT environments. Thus, based on the challenging open issues related to routing in IoT networks, this thesis aims to study and propose contributions to better attend the network requirements of IoT scenarios. A comprehensive survey, reviewing state-of-the-art routing protocols adopted for IoT, identified the strengths and weaknesses of current solutions available in the literature. Based on the identified limitations, a set of improvements is designed to overcome these issues and enhance IoT network performance. The novel solutions are proposed to include reliable and efficient support to attend the needs of IoT applications, such as mobility, heterogeneity, and different traffic patterns. Moreover, mechanisms to improve the network performance in IoT scenarios, which integrate devices with different communication technologies, are introduced. The studies conducted to assess the performance of the proposed solutions showed the high potential of the proposed solutions. When the approaches presented in this thesis were compared with others available in the literature, they presented very promising results considering the metrics related to the Quality of Service (QoS), network and energy efficiency, and memory usage as well as adding new features to the base protocols. Hence, it is believed that the proposed improvements contribute to the state-of-the-art of routing solutions for IoT networks, increasing the performance and adoption of enhanced protocols.A Internet das Coisas, do inglês Internet of Things (IoT), propõe um paradigma de comunicação disruptivo para possibilitar que dispositivos, que podem ser dotados de comportamentos autónomos ou inteligentes, troquem dados entre eles buscando alcançar um objetivo comum. Os cenários de aplicação do IoT são muito variados e podem abranger desde um simples sistema de iluminação para casa até o controle total de uma linha de produção industrial. Na maioria das instalações IoT, as “coisas” são equipadas com um pequeno dispositivo, responsável por realizar as tarefas de comunicação e processamento de dados, que pode sofrer com severas restrições de hardware e energia. Assim, devido às suas características, a rede de comunicação criada por esses dispositivos é geralmente categorizada como uma Low Power and Lossy Network (LLN). A grande variedade de cenários IoT representam uma questão crucial para as LLNs, que devem oferecer suporte aos diferentes requisitos das aplicações, além de manter níveis de qualidade de serviço, do inglês Quality of Service (QoS), adequados. Baseado neste desafio, os protocolos de encaminhamento constituem um aspecto chave na implementação de cenários IoT. Os protocolos de encaminhamento são responsáveis por criar os caminhos entre os dispositivos e permitir suas interações. Assim, o desempenho e as características da rede são altamente dependentes do comportamento destes protocolos. Adicionalmente, com base no protocolo adotado, o suporte a alguns requisitos específicos das aplicações de IoT podem ou não ser fornecidos. Portanto, estes protocolos devem ser projetados para atender as necessidades das aplicações assim como considerando as limitações do hardware no qual serão executados. Procurando atender às necessidades dos protocolos de encaminhamento em LLNs e, consequentemente, das redes IoT, a Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) desenvolveu e padronizou o IPv6 Routing Protocol for Low Power and Lossy Networks (RPL). O protocolo, embora seja robusto e ofereça recursos para atender às necessidades de diferentes aplicações, apresenta algumas falhas e fraquezas (principalmente relacionadas com a sua alta complexidade e necessidade de memória) que limitam sua adoção em cenários IoT. Em alternativa ao RPL, o Lightweight On-demand Ad hoc Distance-vector Routing Protocol – Next Generation (LOADng) emergiu como uma solução de encaminhamento menos complexa para as LLNs. Contudo, o preço da simplicidade é pago com a falta de suporte adequado para um conjunto de recursos essenciais necessários em muitos ambientes IoT. Assim, inspirado pelas desafiadoras questões ainda em aberto relacionadas com o encaminhamento em redes IoT, esta tese tem como objetivo estudar e propor contribuições para melhor atender os requisitos de rede em cenários IoT. Uma profunda e abrangente revisão do estado da arte sobre os protocolos de encaminhamento adotados em IoT identificou os pontos fortes e limitações das soluções atuais. Com base nas debilidades encontradas, um conjunto de soluções de melhoria é proposto para superar carências existentes e melhorar o desempenho das redes IoT. As novas soluções são propostas para incluir um suporte confiável e eficiente capaz atender às necessidades das aplicações IoT relacionadas com suporte à mobilidade, heterogeneidade dos dispositivos e diferentes padrões de tráfego. Além disso, são introduzidos mecanismos para melhorar o desempenho da rede em cenários IoT que integram dispositivos com diferentes tecnologias de comunicação. Os vários estudos realizados para mensurar o desempenho das soluções propostas mostraram o grande potencial do conjunto de melhorias introduzidas. Quando comparadas com outras abordagens existentes na literatura, as soluções propostas nesta tese demonstraram um aumento do desempenho consistente para métricas relacionadas a qualidade de serviço, uso de memória, eficiência energética e de rede, além de adicionar novas funcionalidades aos protocolos base. Portanto, acredita-se que as melhorias propostas contribuiem para o avanço do estado da arte em soluções de encaminhamento para redes IoT e aumentar a adoção e utilização dos protocolos estudados

Neighbour-disjoint multipath for low-power and lossy networks

In this article, we describe a neighbour disjoint multipath (NDM) scheme that is shown to be more resilient amidst node or link failures compared to the two well-known node disjoint and edge disjoint multipath techniques. A centralised NDM was first conceptualised in our initial published work utilising the spatial diversity among multiple paths to ensure robustness against localised poor channel quality or node failures. Here, we further introduce a distributed version of our NDM algorithm adapting to the low-power and lossy network (LLN) characteristics. We implement our distributed NDM algorithm in Contiki OS on top of LOADng—a lightweight On-demand Ad hoc Distance Vector Routing protocol. We compare this implementation's performance with a standard IPv6 Routing Protocol for Low power and Lossy Networks (RPL), and also with basic LOADng, running in the Cooja simulator. Standard performance metrics such as packet delivery ratio, end-to-end latency, overhead and average routing table size are identified for the comparison. The results and observations are provided considering a few different application traffic patterns, which serve to quantify the improvements in robustness arising from NDM. The results are confirmed by experiments using a public sensor network testbed with over 100 nodes

On Design, Evaluation and Enhancement of IP-Based Routing Solutions for Low Power and Lossy Networks

In early 2008, a new IETF Working Group (WG), namely ROLL, was chartered to investigate the suitability of existing IP routing protocols for Low Power Lossy Networks (LLNs), which at the time were suffering compatibility issues due to the pervasive use of proprietary protocols. Given the vision of the Internet of Things (IoT) and the role LLNs would play in the future Internet, the IETF set out to standardize an IPv6 based routing solution for such networks. After surveying existing protocols and determining their unsuitability, the WG started designing a new distance vector protocol called RPL (recently standardized in IETF RFC 6550) to fulfill their charter. Joining the WG efforts, we developed a very detailed RPL simulator and using link and traffic traces for existing networks, contributed with a performance study of the protocol with respect to several metrics of interest, such as path quality, end-to-end delay, control plane overhead, ability to cope with instability, etc. This work was standardized as IETF Informational RFC 6687.This detailed study uncovered performance issues for networks of very large scale. In this thesis, we provide an overview of RPL, summarize our findings from the performance study, analysis and comparison with a reactive lightweight protocol and suggest modifications to the protocol that yield significant performance improvements with respect to control overhead and memory consumption in very large scale networks. For future work, we propose a routing technique, named Hybrid Intelligent Path Computation (HIPC), along with modifications to the original RPL protocol standard, that outperforms solely distributed or centralized routing techniques. Finally, we also show how one can facilitate Quality of Service (QoS), load balancing and traffic engineering provision in the IoT without incurring any extra control overhead in number of packets other than that already consumed by the proposed IETF standard, using a combination of centralized and distributed computation.Ph.D., Computer Science -- Drexel University, 201

A software-defined survivability approach for wireless sensor networks in future internet of the things

This thesis was submitted for the award of Doctor of Philosophy and was awarded by Brunel University LondonThe Internet of the Things (IoT) is evolving rapidly, and its significant impacts are expected to affect many application domains. Challenges in areas that humans have been striving to understand, measure, or predict—such as wildlife, healthcare, or environmental hazards—are likely to be addressed by the time IoT emerges. The underlying elements of IoT are wireless sensor networks (WSNs), which consist of a large number of sensor nodes. In the IoT sphere, sensor nodes represent tangible objects—Things—that monitor changes, collect information, and eventually send it through the Internet to a recipient party. Inherently, however, a wireless sensor node relies on limited computational resources with a limited power source. These undesirable qualities result in a low level of dependability. This research explores the viability of applying the unfolding network programmability concepts to overcome survivability obstacles in WSNs and the IoT. In particular, it examines the viability of software-defined networking (SDN) in network lifetime maximisation, failure detection, and failure recovery problems in WSNs. Software-defined networking is a new network programmability concept that separates the traditionally-tied control and data planes. It offloads the route computations and management from network devices to a logically centralised controller. This separation directly leads to better allocation of computational resources for the network nodes and allows endless orchestration possibilities for the controller. This thesis proposes an SDN-based solution to increase the survivability and resilience of WSN environments. Following an approach that conforms with the centralised nature of SDN environments and considers the limited resources of the WSN. A routing algorithm based on A-star was developed for WSNs, then deployed within an SDN environment to maximise the network lifetime. Apart from finding the path with the lowest energy burden, the algorithm offloads most of the control traffic from sensor nodes to the controller. This algorithm resulted in improved resource utilisation among the nodes due to plane decoupling. Additionally, it increased the lifetime of the network by 22.6% compared to the widely explored LEACH protocol. This thesis also investigates different failure detection and recovery practices in the SDN architecture. The simulation results show that adopting bidirectional forwarding detection (BFD) with the asynchronous echo mode for WSN in an SDN environment reduces control traffic for failure detection to between 27% and 48%. The thesis also evaluates the performance of multiple recovery approaches when adopting the premises of SDN. The simulation results indicate that path protection, using group tables from the OpenFlow protocol, has a recovery time up to eight times shorter than the restoration time. The results of the study reveal that using protection as a failure recovery technique significantly reduces control traffic overhead

BLE Connectivity and its Multi-hop Extension for IoT Applications

학위논문 (박사)-- 서울대학교 대학원 공과대학 전기·컴퓨터공학부, 2017. 8. 박세웅.Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE) is one of the representative low-power communication protocols that are being used to provide wireless connectivity for resource constrained devices as part of Internet of Things (IoT). Despite its commercial adoption, BLE's current use is limited to short-range applications due to the lack of research about its coverage extension. In this dissertation, we investigate two issues that need to be addressed for BLE's network coverage extension and also consider a new application scenario using a BLE-based multi-hop network. First, we tackle the BLE connection maintenance and energy consumption problems by adaptively controlling one of BLE's link layer parameters (TCI ) under dynamic channel condition. We formulate an optimization problem to find an optimal TCI and design a connection interval adaptation mechanism for BLE to achieve high energy efficiency while maintaining robust connectivity. We evaluate our proposed solutions through testbed experiments and simulation which shows that it reduces energy consumption of BLE in dynamic channel environments. Secondly, we consider a protocol architecture that aims to run IPv6 routing protocol for low power and lossy networks (RPL) over BLE to construct BLE-based multi-hop networks. We design an adaptation layer between BLE and RPL which tightly couples RPL and BLE operation. We implement the adaptation layer in a Linux kernel to realize RPL over BLE. Through extensive experiments in an indoor testbed, we evaluate the performance of RPL over BLE and compare the performance results with that of RPL over IEEE 802.15.4 which shows signicant improvement. Lastly, we consider a new application scenario of BLE using the coverage extension of BLE based on multi-hop networking. We propose a novel layered architecture of Wi-Fi and BLE that constructs an energy efficient and high data rate supportable ad-hoc network for disaster communication. We implement the proposed architecture in Linux kernel and evaluate the performance through our indoor testbed. The result shows that our proposed solution reduces the average power consumption of nodes in the testbed compared to a conventional Wi-Fi ad-hoc network.1 Introduction 1  1.1 Motivation 1  1.2 Related Work 4  1.2.1 Low power consumption of BLE 4  1.2.2 BLE multi-hop networking 5  1.3 Contributions and Outline 6  2 CABLE: Connection Interval Adaptation for BLE in Dynamic Wireless Environments 10  2.1 Introduction 10  2.2 Background and Problem Statement 14  2.2.1 Link layer operation 14  2.2.2 Connection loss due to supervision timeout 16  2.2.3 BLE protocol stack and connection interval set- ting 17  2.2.4 Problem of BLE with xed connection interval 19  2.3 Connection Interval Optimization 22  2.3.1 Problem formulation 22  2.3.2 Problem solution 26  2.4 CABLE System Design 29  2.4.1 PER estimator 30  2.4.2 TCI adjuster 33  2.5 Performance Evaluation 34  2.5.1 Simulation results 35  2.5.2 Experimental results 40  2.6 Summary 41  3 A Synergistic Architecture for RPL over BLE 43  3.1 Introduction 43  3.2 Background 47 3.2.1 RPL operation 47  3.2.2 BLE link layer operation 48  3.2.3 6LoWPAN for BLE 50  3.3 Design of RPL over BLE 52  3.3.1 Synergistic Network Architecture for RPL over BLE 52  3.3.2 DIO broadcast over advertising channels 54   3.3.3 Routing metric for RPL over BLE 57  3.3.4 RPL parent change with BLE connection man- agement 60  3.4 ALBER Implementation 61  3.5 Performance Evaluation 64  3.5.1 Testbed environments 64  3.5.2 Comparison of RPL over BLE vs. RPL over 802.15.4 65  3.5.3 Eect of varying connection interval 70  3.5.4 Eect of ECI-based routing metric 71  3.6 Summary 73  4 Wi-BLE: A Novel Layered Architecture of Wi-Fi & BLE Networks for Disaster Communications 74  4.1 Introduction 74  4.2 Background 78  4.2.1 Application requirements of ad-hoc networks for disaster communications 78  4.2.2 Candidate wireless interfaces for ad-hoc networks 79  4.2.3 Wi-BLE use scenario 79  4.3 Wi-BLE System Overview 80  4.3.1 Protocol Architecture 80  4.3.2 Operation Overview 81  4.4 MABLE: Mobile Ad-hoc for BLE 82  4.4.1 Routing protocol selection for MABLE 82  4.4.2 BLE Channel Usage for AODV over BLE 84  4.5 Wi-BLE: Wi-Fi Ad-hoc over BLE networks 88  4.5.1 Wi-BLE control packet delivery over BLE path 88  4.5.2 Routing protocol for Wi-BLE 89  4.5.3 Wi-Fi on/o control for energy saving 92  4.6 Implementation 92  4.7 Performance Evaluation 94  4.7.1 Testbed Environments 94  4.7.2 Hop distance &Throughput 95  4.7.3 Power Consumption 97  4.8 Summary 98  5 Conclusion 100  5.1 Research Contributions 100  5.2 Further Research Direction 102Docto

Efficient Routing Primitives for Low-power and Lossy Networks in Internet of Things

At the heart of the Internet of Things (IoTs) are the Low-power and Lossy networks (LLNs), a collection of interconnected battery-operated and resource-constrained tiny devices that enable the realization of a wide range of applications in multiple domains. For an efficient operation, such networks require the design of efficient protocols especially at the network layer of their communication stack. In this regards, the Routing Protocol for LLNs (RPL) has been developed and standardised by the IETF to fulfil the routing requirements in such networks. Proven efficient in tackling some major issues, RPL is still far from being optimal in addressing several other routing gaps in the context of LLNs. For instance, the RPL standard lacks in a scalable routing mechanism in the applications that require bidirectional communication. In addition, its routing maintenance mechanism suffers from relatively slow convergence time, limiting the applicability of the protocol in time-critical applications, and a high risk of incorrect configurations of its parameters, risking the creation of sub-optimal routes. Furthermore, RPL lacks in a fair load-distribution mechanism which may harm both energy and reliability of its networks. Motivated by the above-mentioned issues, this thesis aimed at overcoming the RPL’s weaknesses by developing more efficient routing solutions, paving the way towards successful deployments and operations of the LLNs at different scales. Hence, to tackle the inefficiency of RPL’s routing maintenance operations, a new routing maintenance algorithm, namely, Drizzle, has been developed characterized by an adaptive, robust and configurable nature that boosts the applicability of RPL in several applications. To address the scalability problem, a new downward routing solution has been developed rendering RPL more efficient in large-scale networks. Finally, a load-balancing objective function for RPL has been proposed that enhances both the energy efficiency and reliability of LLNs. The efficiency of the proposed solutions has been validated through extensive simulation experiments under different scenarios and operation conditions demonstrating significant performance enhancements in terms of convergence time, scalability, reliability, and power consumption

Latency Optimization in Smart Meter Networks

In this thesis, we consider the problem of smart meter networks with data collection to a central point within acceptable delay and least consumed energy. In smart metering applications, transferring and collecting data within delay constraints is crucial. IoT devices are usually resource-constrained and need reliable and energy-efficient routing protocol. Furthermore, meters deployed in lossy networks often lead to packet loss and congestion. In smart grid communication, low latency and low energy consumption are usually the main system targets. Considering these constraints, we propose an enhancement in RPL to ensure link reliability and low latency. The proposed new additive composite metric is Delay-Aware RPL (DA-RPL). Moreover, we propose a repeaters’ placement algorithm to meet the latency requirements. The performance of a realistic RF network is simulated and evaluated. On top of the routing solution, new asynchronous ordered transmission algorithms of UDP data packets are proposed to further enhance the overall network latency performance and mitigate the whole system congestion and interference. Experimental results show that the performance of DA-RPL is promising in terms of end-to-end delay and energy consumption. Furthermore, the ordered asynchronous transmission of data packets resulted in significant latency reduction using just a single routing metric

Impacts of Mobility Models on RPL-Based Mobile IoT Infrastructures: An Evaluative Comparison and Survey

With the widespread use of IoT applications and the increasing trend in the number of connected smart devices, the concept of routing has become very challenging. In this regard, the IPv6 Routing Protocol for Low-power and Lossy Networks (PRL) was standardized to be adopted in IoT networks. Nevertheless, while mobile IoT domains have gained significant popularity in recent years, since RPL was fundamentally designed for stationary IoT applications, it could not well adjust with the dynamic fluctuations in mobile applications. While there have been a number of studies on tuning RPL for mobile IoT applications, but still there is a high demand for more efforts to reach a standard version of this protocol for such applications. Accordingly, in this survey, we try to conduct a precise and comprehensive experimental study on the impact of various mobility models on the performance of a mobility-aware RPL to help this process. In this regard, a complete and scrutinized survey of the mobility models has been presented to be able to fairly justify and compare the outcome results. A significant set of evaluations has been conducted via precise IoT simulation tools to monitor and compare the performance of the network and its IoT devices in mobile RPL-based IoT applications under the presence of different mobility models from different perspectives including power consumption, reliability, latency, and control packet overhead. This will pave the way for researchers in both academia and industry to be able to compare the impact of various mobility models on the functionality of RPL, and consequently to design and implement application-specific and even a standard version of this protocol, which is capable of being employed in mobile IoT applications

On reliable and secure RPL (routing protocol low-power and lossy networks) based monitoring and surveillance in oil and gas fields

Different efforts have been made to specify protocols and algorithms for the successful operation of the Internet of things Networks including, for instance, the Low Power and Lossy Networks (LLNs) and Linear Sensor Networks (LSNs). Into such efforts, IETF, the Internet Engineering Task Force, created a working group named, ROLL, to investigate the requirement of such networks and devising more efficient solutions. The effort of this group has resulted in the specification of the IPv6 Routing Protocol for LLNs (RPL), which was standardized in 2012. However, since the introduction of RPL, several studies have reported that it suffers from various limitations and weaknesses including scalability, slow convergence, unfairness of load distribution, inefficiency of bidirectional communication and security, among many others. For instance, a serious problem is RPL’s under-specification of DAO messages which may result in conflict and inefficient implementations leading to a poor performance and scalability issues. Furthermore, RPL has been found to suffer from several security issues including, for instance, the DAO flooding attack, in which the attacker floods the network with control messages aiming to exhaust network resources. Another fundamental issue is related to the scarcity of the studies that investigate RPL suitability for Linear Sensor Networks (LSN) and devising solution in the lieu of that.Motivated by these observations, the publications within this thesis aim to tackle some of the key gaps of the RPL by introducing more efficient and secure routing solutions in consideration of the specific requirements of LLNs in general and LSNs as a special case. To this end, the first publication proposes an enhanced version of RPL called Enhanced-RPL aimed at mitigating the memory overflow and the under-specification of the of DAOs messages. Enhanced-RPL has shown significant reduction in control messages overhead by up to 64% while maintaining comparable reliability to RPL. The second publication introduces a new technique to address the DAO attack of RPL which has been shown to be effective in mitigating the attack reducing the DAO overhead and latency by up to 205% and 181% respectively as well as increasing the PDR by up to 6% latency. The third and fourth publications focus on analysing the optimal placement of nodes and sink movement pattern (fixed or mobile) that RPL should adopt in LSNs. It was concluded based on the results obtained that RPL should opt for fixed sinks with 10 m distance between deployed nodes