Advanced Geoscience Remote Sensing

Nowadays, advanced remote sensing technology plays tremendous roles to build a quantitative and comprehensive understanding of how the Earth system operates. The advanced remote sensing technology is also used widely to monitor and survey the natural disasters and man-made pollution. Besides, telecommunication is considered as precise advanced remote sensing technology tool. Indeed precise usages of remote sensing and telecommunication without a comprehensive understanding of mathematics and physics. This book has three parts (i) microwave remote sensing applications, (ii) nuclear, geophysics and telecommunication; and (iii) environment remote sensing investigations

Exploring the potential of high temporal resolution X-band SAR time series for various permafrost applications with ground truth observations in the Lena River Delta, Siberia.

Permafrost is a subsurface phenomenon that cannot be directly monitored with satellite remote sensing. A variety of indirect approaches are currently being developed which aim to measure permafrost-related processes and environmental variables. Results of these studies aid the planning of future satellite missions which will allow large-scale permafrost monitoring. This thesis contributes to this ongoing effort by assessing the potential of repeat-pass TerraSAR-X (TSX) time series for permafrost-related applications. For the first time, multi-year Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) data with high temporal (11 days) and spatial (3 m) resolution was analysed for a region characterized by continuous permafrost in the Siberian Arctic. Extensive in situ data was collected during three summer and winter expeditions to validate and interpret remote sensing results. Three case studies were carried out: (i) the detection of land surface changes (e.g. ground freezing and thawing, surface wetness variations, snow cover onset and melt); (ii) monitoring bedfast lake ice and ice phenology (freeze-up, melt onset, break-up); and (iii) differential SAR interferometry (DInSAR) for thaw subsidence monitoring. For the first two case studies, time series of both backscatter intensity and 11-day interferometric coherence (i.e. a measure of phase stability between two SAR images) were investigated. Backscatter intensity was generally shown to be insensitive to the land surface changes but responded to events that occurred at the time of TSX acquisition (rain, snow shower, melt/freeze crust on snow). Interferometric coherence decreased dramatically across the entire image upon snow cover onset and melt, permitting the possible use of coherence for the monitoring of these events. Backscatter intensity was found to be an excellent tool for the detection and monitoring of bedfast lake ice due in part to improved temporal resolution compared to previously used SAR systems. Ice phenology was mostly well tracked with backscatter intensity. Interferometric coherence was found to be sensitive to the lake ice grounding and to the onset of surface melt on the lakes with bedfast ice. The investigation of coherence was a useful preparative step for the following DInSAR analysis. For the third case study, coherent 11-day and 22-day interferograms were available only for one summer of the two-year TSX time series. The cumulative DInSAR displacement strongly underestimated the subsidence observed on the ground. In situ observations revealed high variability of subsidence, which likely caused errors in phase unwrapping. Conventional DInSAR processing might therefore not be suitable for the accurate representation of permafrost thaw subsidence. This study highlights the importance of field measurements for the quantification of thaw subsidence with DInSAR, which were mostly omitted in the previous studies. All in all, this thesis shows the limitations and potential of TSX time series to spatially and temporally monitor permafrost. It thus provides an important contribution to the methodological development of a long-term permafrost monitoring scheme

Processing of optic and radar images.Application in satellite remote sensing of snow, ice and glaciers

Ce document présente une synthèse de mes activités de recherche depuis la soutenance de ma thèse en 1999. L'activité rapportée ici est celle d'un ingénieur de recherche, et donc s'est déroulée en parallèle d'une activité ``technique'' comprenant des taches d'instrumentation en laboratoire, d'instrumentation de plateformes en montagne, de raids scientifiques sur les calottes polaires, d'élaboration de projets scientifiques, d'organisation d'équipes ou d'ordre administratif. Je suis Ingénieur de recherche CNRS depuis 2004 affecté au laboratoire Gipsa-lab, une unité mixte de recherche du CNRS, de Grenoble-INP, de l'université Joseph Fourier et de l'université Stendhal. Ce laboratoire (d'environ 400 personnes), conventionné avec l'INRIA, l'Observatoire de Grenoble et l'université Pierre Mendès France, est pluridisciplinaire et développe des recherches fondamentales et finalisées sur les signaux et les systèmes complexes.}Lors de la préparation de ma thèse (mi-temps 1995-99) au LGGE, je me suis intéressé au traitement des images de microstructures de la neige, du névé et de la glace. C'est assez naturellement que j'ai rejoint le laboratoire LIS devenu Gipsa-lab pour y développer des activités de traitement des images Radar à Synthèse d'Ouverture (RSO) appliqué aux milieux naturels neige, glace et glaciers. Etant le premier à générer un interférogramme différentiel des glaciers des Alpes, j'ai continué à travailler sur la phase interférométrique pour extraire des informations de déplacement et valider ces méthodes sur le glacier d'Argentière (massif du Mont-Blanc) qui présente l'énorme avantage de se déplacer de quelques centimètres par jour. Ces activités m'ont amené à développer, en collaboration avec les laboratoires LISTIC, LTCI et IETR, des méthodes plus générales pour extraire des informations dans les images RSO.Ma formation initiale en électronique, puis de doctorat en physique m'ont amené à mettre à profit mes connaissances en traitement d'images et des signaux, en électromagnétisme, en calcul numérique, en informatique et en physique de la neige et de la glace pour étudier les problèmes de traitement des images RSO appliqués à la glace, aux glaciers et à la neige

Apports de données radar pour l'estimation des paramètres biophysiques des surfaces agricoles

Les travaux de thèse s'inscrivent au sein du chantier Sud-Ouest, dont le principal objectif est de contribuer à la compréhension et à la modélisation du fonctionnement des surfaces continentales à l'échelle du paysage. Ces travaux visent à améliorer les capacités de suivi et d'analyses de surfaces fortement anthropisées : les agrosystèmes. A la fois acteurs et spectateurs vis-à-vis du changement climatique, ces surfaces sont également dédiées à la production alimentaire. La problématique vise donc à concilier durabilité des ressources et niveau de production suffisant, en identifiant des outils comme la télédétection utiles à la prise de décision à des échelles allant de la parcelle au territoire. Dans ce contexte, les radars à synthèse d'ouverture (RSO) embarqués au sein de satellites, présentent le double avantage d'être sensibles à différents paramètres des surfaces continentales (en lien avec le sol, ou la végétation), et la capacité d'observation par condition nuageuse (à l'inverse des capteurs opérant dans le visible). Depuis les années 90, différentes études basées sur des images acquises avec la technologie RSO ont montré l'intérêt des données micro-ondes pour le suivi des surfaces continentales. Ces dernières années, l'émergence de missions satellites dans les bandes de fréquence X et L vient enrichir les possibilités d'étude autrefois limitées à la seule bande C. Ces couples capteurs-satellites fournissent aujourd'hui des produits à haute résolution spatiale (allant jusqu'au mètre), avec des possibilités de revisite hebdomadaire, critères nécessaires pour le suivi des zones hétérogènes, associées à de fortes dynamiques temporelles. Les travaux effectués dans le cadre de cette thèse visent à établir la complémentarité entre les données radars (TerraSAR-X, Radarsat-2 et Alos, dans les bandes spectrales X, C et L) et optiques (Formosat-2, Spot-4/5) acquises par satellites pour le suivi des agrosytèmes. Ils s'articulent autour de trois axes complémentaires : - Le premier consiste en la mise en oeuvre d'une campagne expérimentale basée sur l'acquisition d'un jeu de données (satellitaire et de terrain), nécessaire au développement de nouvelles approches pour l'analyse du paysage. La zone suivie, caractérisée par une forte anthropisation, est située à 50 km au sud-ouest de Toulouse. Les images satellitaires regroupent trois séries temporelles radar (bandes X, C et L), auxquelles s'ajoutent des acquisitions réalisées dans l'optique (Formosat-2, Spot-4/5). Avec un total d'une centaine d'images acquises dans les hyperfréquences, la zone commune aux différentes scènes couvre une surface de 10×10 km². Conjointement, les protocoles de mesures de terrain ont permis de considérer de manière indépendante les deux éléments clés de la surface : le sol et la culture. En complément des stations météorologiques installées dans le cadre du chantier, des mesures qualitatives et quantitatives ont été réalisés de manière synchrone avec les acquisitions satellites, sur un total de 387 parcelles. Cinq cultures sont principalement étudiées : blé, colza, tournesol, mais et soja. - Les signatures temporelles de chacune des cultures sont ensuite établies à chaque longueur d'onde d'acquisition satellitaire (optique et radar) à travers une approche originale de normalisation angulaire des signaux radar (combinaison de l'information radar et optique). Les résultats obtenus durant le cycle phénologique des cultures d'hiver (blé et colza) et d'été (maïs, soja et tournesol) montrent clairement la complémentarité des approches multi-capteurs, et la spécificité des signaux radars (en lien avec les états de polarisations et les fréquences considérées). Deux paramètres biophysiques relatifs à la végétation sont enfin estimés (LAI et hauteur), les données micro-ondes montrant à la fois une importante sensibilité et de bonnes performances. - La modélisation électromagnétique sur sol nu a tout d'abord permis d'évaluer différents formalismes, à savoir : les modèles de Dubois et d'Oh (1992 et 2004) ayant comme caractéristiques communes une description simplifiée des processus. Ils sont confrontés à un modèle reposant sur des bases physiques, le modèle IEM (Integral Equation Model). L'application des modèles dans les différentes bandes spectrales (X, C et L), montre des résultats très hétérogènes, les meilleures performances étant obtenue en bande X, avec le modèle d'Oh 1992. Par la suite, l'amélioration des modèles tire parti de l'analyse des résidus (vis-à-vis des variables d'entrée), afin de réduire la dispersion observée. Les modèles testés sont optimisés et validés selon une approche de type résidus. Une forte amélioration est observée pour la plupart des modèles. Les résultats mettent en évidence l'intérêt des données multi-capteurs pour le suivi des surfaces dédiées à l'agriculture. Dans un futur proche, les missions spatiales telles que Tandem-X, Sentinel-1/-2, Radarsat Constellation ou Alos-2 devraient pérenniser l'accès à ces données, et préciser ainsi les résultats obtenus dans le cadre de cette thèse.The thesis fall within the "SudOuest" project, whose main objective is to contribute to the understanding and the modeling of the land surface functioning, at the landscape scale. This work aims to improve the capacity of monitoring and analysis of highly anthropic surfaces: agrosystems. Both actors and audience to climate change, these surfaces are also dedicated to the food production. So the problem is to reconcile sustainability of resources and sufficient level of production, identifying tools, such as remote sensing, useful in making decision at scales ranging from plot to land. In this context, the Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) embedded in satellites have the twofold advantages of being sensitive to different parameters of the land surface (related to soil, and vegetation), and the ability to observe by cloudy condition (unlike sensors operating in the visible). Since the 90s, several studies based on images acquired with SAR technology have shown the interest of microwave data for the monitoring of land surface. In recent years, the emergence of satellite missions at X- and L-bands enriches study opportunities once only limited to the C-band. These sensor/satellite couples now provide products with high spatial resolution (up to a meter), with the possibility of weekly revisits, necessary criteria for the monitoring of heterogeneous areas associated with high temporal dynamics. Works done in this thesis aim to establish the complementarities between the radar (TerraSAR-X, Radarsat-2 and Alos, at X-, C- and L-bands) and optical data (Formosat-2, Spot-4/-5) acquired by satellites for the monitoring of agrosystems. They revolve around three complementary areas: - The first is the implementation of an experimental campaign based on the acquisition of a set of data (satellite and ground), necessary for the development of new approaches to landscape analysis. The studied area, characterized by a strong human impact, is located near Toulouse (at 50 km in the South West). Satellite images include three radar time series acquired at X-, C- and L-bands, and images acquired in the optical (Formosat-2, Spot-4/-5). With a total of one hundred images acquired in the microwave domain, the common area to the different scenes covering a region of 10×10 km². Together, the protocols used for field measurements consider independently the two key elements of the surface: the soil and the culture. In addition to the weather stations (part of the "SudOuest" project), qualitative and quantitative measurements are performed synchronously with the satellite acquisitions, on a total of 387 plots. Five crops are mainly studied: wheat, rapeseed, sunflower, corn and soybean. - The temporal signatures of these crops are then established for each satellite wavelength (optical and radar), through an original approach based on an angular normalization of radar signals (combining the optical and radar information). The results obtained during the phenological cycle of winter (wheat and rapeseed) and summer crops (corn, soybean and sunflower) clearly show the complementarity of multi-sensor approaches and the specificity of radar signals (associated with the considered polarization states and frequencies). Two biophysical parameters related to vegetation are finally estimated (leaf area index and height), the microwave data showing both high sensitivity and good performances. - The electromagnetic modeling of bare soil is first used to evaluate different formalisms, namely Dubois and Oh (1992 and 2004) models, with common characteristics, a simplified description of the process. They are confronted with a model based on the physical laws, the IEM (Integral Equation Model). The application of models in different spectral bands (X, C and L), shows very mixed results; the best performances are obtained at X-band with Oh 1992 model. Thereafter, the enhancement of the models takes advantage of the residue analysis (as a function of the input variables), to reduce the observed dispersion. The tested models are optimized and validated using an approach such residues. A significant improvement is observed for most models. The results highlight the interest of multi-sensor data for the monitoring of continental surfaces dedicated to agriculture. In the near future, satellite missions such as Tandem -X, Sentinel-1/-2, Radarsat Constellation or Alos-2 should sustain access to these data, and define the results obtained in this thesis

Spatial variability of aircraft-measured surface energy fluxes in permafrost landscapes

Arctic ecosystems are undergoing a very rapid change due to global warming and their response to climate change has important implications for the global energy budget. Therefore, it is crucial to understand how energy fluxes in the Arctic will respond to any changes in climate related parameters. However, attribution of these responses is challenging because measured fluxes are the sum of multiple processes that respond differently to environmental factors. Here, we present the potential of environmental response functions for quantitatively linking energy flux observations over high latitude permafrost wetlands to environmental drivers in the flux footprints. We used the research aircraft POLAR 5 equipped with a turbulence probe and fast temperature and humidity sensors to measure turbulent energy fluxes along flight tracks across the Alaskan North Slope with the aim to extrapolate the airborne eddy covariance flux measurements from their specific footprint to the entire North Slope. After thorough data pre-processing, wavelet transforms are used to improve spatial discretization of flux observations in order to relate them to biophysically relevant surface properties in the flux footprint. Boosted regression trees are then employed to extract and quantify the functional relationships between the energy fluxes and environmental drivers. Finally, the resulting environmental response functions are used to extrapolate the sensible heat and water vapor exchange over spatio-temporally explicit grids of the Alaskan North Slope. Additionally, simulations from the Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model were used to explore the dynamics of the atmospheric boundary layer and to examine results of our extrapolation

Remote sensing applications for the assessment of the geomorphic response of fluvial systems to the Holocene Climate Changes

The general goal of this thesis is the identification and description of the geomorphological responses of the fluvial system to the Holocene Climate Changes, proposing a multi-sensor remote sensing approach. In particular, the specific aim of this work is the improvement of the present knowledge on the Holocene and historical morphodynamics of the Lower Mesopotamian waterscape, especially on the paleo-hydrology of the ancient Tigris-Euphrates fluvial system, focusing on the specific process in the dynamics of the waterscapes which plays a key role in the drainage network evolution in lowland areas. Crevasse splays represent significant geomorphological features for understanding the fluvial morphodynamics in lowland areas where avulsion processes prevail. The southern Mesopotamian Plain is the area where the ancient State of Lagash developed between the prehistoric Ubaid Period (c. 5200 - c. 3500 BC) and the late Parthian era (247 BC - AD 244), representing an ideal case study, where the Italian Archaeological Mission has been recently carried on extensive field-works at Tell Zurghul archaeological site. Here, an interdisciplinary approach, combining field surveys and geomorphological mapping through remote sensing techniques, has been applied for analyzing the function and role of the waterscape on the early civilization. Indeed, the geomorphological analysis through a remote sensing approach and the archaeological surveys are both essential for the reconstruction of a complex environmental system, where landforms due to different morphogenetic processes occur, related to the presence of a wide fluvial-deltaic paleo-system and early human societies. The main aim of the focus on this archaeological site is to contribute to the reconstruction of the surrounding waterscape and know more about waterscape-human interactions during the Holocene. The question of human-waterscape relationship worldwide has been and still is a central topic in geomorphological, environmental, and archaeological research. During the Holocene, the Tigris-Euphrates river system, in the lower sector of the Mesopotamian Plain (Iraq), has been characterized by complex morphodynamics in response to both climate fluctuations and extensive construction of artificial canals, dug since the first human settlements belonging to the Early River Valley Civilizations. The Lower Mesopotamian Plain (LMP) coincides with the southern Tigris and Euphrates deltaic plain, developed starting since the mid Holocene. During the early Holocene, the sea-level rise caused a general and rapid northward shifting of the Persian Gulf shoreline: the maximum marine ingression reached the area where the present towns of Nasiriyah and Al-Amara are located about 6000 yrs BP; after which the widespread progradation of the Tigris and Euphrates delta system accounted for the southward shoreline regression up to the present position. The development of a typical bird-foot delta guaranteed an amount of water indispensable for agriculture, cattle, settlements, and transport. Indeed, the high mobility of the channels and the frequent occurrence of avulsion processes (i.e., levees break and related crevasse splays formation) are the main features typically connected to a multi-channel system, guarantying the water supply through seasonal floods. In the area, the water management during the mid Holocene, digging an extensive network of canals and building several dams, can either improve the socio-economic conditions of a settlement or cause the end of another one. Within a wide floodplain characterized by very low elevation ranges such as the LMP, a remote sensing, multi-sensor approach is a suitable method for identifying the main geomorphological features related to the fluvial avulsion processes, describing the associated morphogenetic processes. Optical and multispectral Landsat 8 satellite images have been processed for computing NDVI and Clay Ratio indices, as well as to extract the Regions of Interest (ROIs) focused on the main features that made up a crevasse splay (i.e., crevasse channel, crevasse levee and crevasse deposit). The spectral signatures from active and abandoned crevasse splays have been extracted and compared among them, adopting four different methods of Supervised Classification. The analysis of the crevasse splays has been integrated with the investigation of the micro-topography leading to recognize the crevasse channels and levees, the upward convexity of the crevasse deposits and the distal or proximal position of the parent channel; the re-classification of different DEM sources, such as the optical AW3D30 and GDEM2 datasets with ground resolution of 1 arcsec (i.e., 30 m cell-1), leads to highlighting the “above-floodplain” topographic configuration of these landforms. The analysis here performed leads to investigating the entire Lower Mesopotamian Plain through both large and medium scale geomorphological investigation, identifying active and abandoned channels, discerning between active and abandoned avulsion processes and distinguishing crevasse channels, levees, and deposits. In like manner, human features are recognized, allowing the evaluation of human-environmental interactions

Uncertainties in Digital Elevation Models: Evaluation and Effects on Landform and Soil Type Classification

Digital elevation models (DEMs) are a widely used source for the digital representation of the Earth's surface in a wide range of scientific, industrial and military applications. Since many processes on Earth are influenced by the shape of the relief, a variety of different applications rely on accurate information about the topography. For instance, DEMs are used for the prediction of geohazards, climate modelling, or planning-relevant issues, such as the identification of suitable locations for renewable energies. Nowadays, DEMs can be acquired with a high geometric resolution and over large areas using various remote sensing techniques, such as photogrammetry, RADAR, or laser scanning (LiDAR). However, they are subject to uncertainties and may contain erroneous representations of the terrain. The quality and accuracy of the topographic representation in the DEM is crucial, as the use of an inaccurate dataset can negatively affect further results, such as the underestimation of landslide hazards due to a too flat representation of relief in the elevation model. Therefore, it is important for users to gain more knowledge about the accuracy of a terrain model to better assess the negative consequences of DEM uncertainties on further analysis results of a certain research application. A proper assessment of whether the purchase or acquisition of a highly accurate DEM is necessary or the use of an already existing and freely available DEM is sufficient to achieve accurate results is of great qualitative and economic importance. In this context, the first part of this thesis focuses on extending knowledge about the behaviour and presence of uncertainties in DEMs concerning terrain and land cover. Thus, the first two studies of this dissertation provide a comprehensive vertical accuracy analysis of twelve DEMs acquired from space with spatial resolutions ranging from 5 m to 90 m. The accuracy of these DEMs was investigated in two different regions of the world that are substantially different in terms of relief and land cover. The first study was conducted in the hyperarid Chilean Atacama Desert in northern Chile, with very sparse land cover and high elevation differences. The second case study was conducted in a mid-latitude region, the Rur catchment in the western part of Germany. This area has a predominantly flat to hilly terrain with relatively diverse and dense vegetation and land cover. The DEMs in both studies were evaluated with particular attention to the influence of relief and land cover on vertical accuracy. The change of error due to changing slope and land cover was quantified to determine an average loss of accuracy as a function of slope for each DEM. Additionally, these values were used to derive relief-adjusted error values for different land cover classes. The second part of this dissertation addresses the consequences that different spatial resolutions and accuracies in DEMs have on specific applications. These implications were examined in two exemplary case studies. In a geomorphometric case study, several DEMs were used to classify landforms by different approaches. The results were subsequently compared and the accuracy of the classification results with different DEMs was analysed. The second case study is settled within the field of digital soil mapping. Various soil types were predicted with machine learning algorithms (random forest and artificial neural networks) using numerous relief parameters derived from DEMs of different spatial resolutions. Subsequently, the influence of high and low resolution DEMs with the respectively derived land surface parameters on the prediction results was evaluated. The results on the vertical accuracy show that uncertainties in DEMs can have diverse reasons. Besides the spatial resolution, the acquisition technique and the degree of improvements made to the dataset significantly impact the occurrence of errors in a DEM. Furthermore, the relief and physical objects on the surface play a major role for uncertainties in DEMs. Overall, the results in steeper areas show that the loss of vertical accuracy is two to three times higher for a 90 m DEM than for DEMs of higher spatial resolutions. While very high resolution DEMs of 12 m spatial resolution or higher only lose about 1 m accuracy per 10° increase in slope steepness, 30 m DEMs lose about 2 m on average, and 90 m DEMs lose more than 3 m up to 6 m accuracy. However, the results also show significant differences for DEMs of identical spatial resolution depending on relief and land cover. With regard to different land cover classes, it can be stated that mid-latitude forested and water areas cause uncertainties in DEMs of about 6 m on average. Other tested land cover classes produced minor errors of about 1 – 2 m on average. The results of the second part of this contribution prove that a careful selection of an appropriate DEM is more crucial for certain applications than for others. The choice of different DEMs greatly impacted the landform classification results. Results from medium resolution DEMs (30 m) achieved up to 30 % lower overall accuracies than results from high resolution DEMs with a spatial resolution of 5 m. In contrast to the landform classification results, the predicted soil types in the second case study showed only minor accuracy differences of less than 2 % between the usage of a spatial high resolution DEM (15 m) and a low resolution 90 m DEM. Finally, the results of these two case studies were compared and discussed with other results from the literature in other application areas. A summary and assessment of the current state of knowledge about the impact of a particular chosen terrain model on the results of different applications was made. In summary, the vertical accuracy measures obtained for each DEM are a first attempt to determine individual error values for each DEM that can be interpreted independently of relief and land cover and can be better applied to other regions. This may help users in the future to better estimate the accuracy of a tested DEM in a particular landscape. The consequences of elevation model selection on further results are highly dependent on the topic of the study and the study area's level of detail. The current state of knowledge on the impact of uncertainties in DEMs on various applications could be established. However, the results of this work can be seen as a first step and more work is needed in the future to extend the knowledge of the effects of DEM uncertainties on further topics that have not been investigated to date

Rock glaciers

Rock glaciers, a key element of alpine mountain geomorphic systems, consist of coarse surface debris that insulates an ice-core or ice-debris mixture. Rates of movement of active rock glaciers vary from 1 to more than 100 cm yr–1. Rock glaciers exist in all major mountain ranges where permafrost occurs but are more common in dryer climates with high talus accumulation rates. New geospatial techniques, high-resolution data sources, and improved technology will contribute to a better understanding of these landforms. This chapter provides an in-depth summary of important research findings pertaining to rock glaciers and offers insight to future research.Preprin