Earth remote sensing with SMOS, Aquarius and SMAP missions

The first three of a series of new generation satellites operating at L-band microwave frequencies have been launch in the last decade. L-band is particularly sensitive to the presence of water content in the scene under observation, being considered the optimal bandwidth for measuring the Earth's global surface soil moisture (SM) over land and sea surface salinity (SSS) over oceans. Monitoring these two essential climate variables is needed to further improve our understanding of the Earth's water and energy cycles. Additionally, remote sensing at L-band has been proved useful for monitoring the stability in ice sheets and measuring sea ice thickness. The ESA's Soil Moisture and Ocean Salinity (SMOS, 2009-2017) is the first mission specifically launched to monitor SM and SSS. It carries on-board a novel synthetic aperture radiometer with multi-angular and full-polarization capabilities. NASA's Aquarius (2011-2015) was the second mission, devoted to SSS monitoring with a combined real aperture radiometer/scatterometer system that allows correcting for sea surface roughness. NASA's Soil Moisture Active Passive (SMAP, 2015-2018) is the second mission dedicated to measure SM. It carries on-board a real aperture full-polarimetric radiometer and a synthetic aperture radar (SAR) for enhanced spatial resolution and freeze/thaw detection. This Ph.D. Thesis is focused on analyzing the geophysical information that can be obtained from L-band SMOS, Aquarius and SMAP observations. The research activities are structured as follows: -Inter-comparison of radiometer brightness temperatures at selected targets. A novel methodology to measure the consistency between SMOS and Aquarius radiometric data over the entire dynamic range of observations (land, ice and ocean) is proposed. It allows detecting spatial/temporal differences or biases without latitudinal limitations neither cross-overs. This is a necessary step to combine observations from different instruments in a long term dataset for environmental, meteorological, hydrological or climatological studies. -Ice thickness effects on passive remote sensing of Antarctic continental ice. The relationship between Antarctic ice thickness spatial variations and changes detected by SMOS and Aquarius measurements is explored. The emissivity of Antarctica is analyzed to disentangle the role of the geophysical contributions (snow layers at different depths and subglacial lakes) to the observed signal. The stability of the L-band signal in the East Antarctic Plateau, calibration/validation site for microwave satellite missions, is assessed. -Microwave/optical synergy for multi-scale soil moisture sensing. The relationship of SM and land surface temperature (LST) dynamics is evaluated to better understand the fundamental SM-LST link through evapotranspiration and thermal inertia physical processes. A new approach to measure the critical soil moisture from time-series of spaceborne SM and LST is proposed. The synergistic use of SMOS SM and remotely sensed LST for refining SM disaggregation algorithms is also analyzed. -Comparison of passive and active microwave vegetation parameters. Recent research has shown that microwave vegetation opacity, sensitive to biomass and water content, and albedo, related to canopy structure, can be retrieved from passive L-band observations. The relationships between these two parameters and radar-derived vegetation descriptors have been explored using airborne observations from the SMAP Validation Experiment 2012 (SMAPVEX12). The obtained relations could allow for improved SM retrievals in active-passive systems, and also to estimate the vegetation properties at high resolution using SAR observations. The Ph.D. Thesis has been developed within the activities of the Barcelona Expert Centre (BEC). The presented results contribute to the use of L-band remote sensing in different scientific disciplines such as climate, cryosphere, hydrology and ecology.Els primers tres d'una sèrie de satèl·lits de nova generació funcionant a la banda L han sigut llançats a l'última dècada. La banda L es molt sensible a la presència d'aigua a l'escena observada, sent considerada òptima per mesurar la humitat del sòl (SM) i la salinitat del mar (SSS) de manera global a la superfície de la Terra. Monitoritzar aquestes dues variables climàtiques essencials es necessari per millorar el nostre coneixement dels cicles de l'aigua i l'energia. La teledetecció a banda L també ha sigut útil per monitoritzar l'estabilitat de les capes de gel i mesurar el gruix de gel marí. La missió Soil Moisture and Ocean Salinity (SMOS, 2009-2017) de l'ESA és la primera específicament llançada per monitoritzar SM i SSS. Porta un nou radiòmetre d'apertura sintètica amb capacitat multiangular i polarització completa. La missió Aquarius (2011-2015) de la NASA va ser la segona, dedicada a monitoritzar SSS amb un sistema de radiòmetre/escateròmetre d’apertura real que permet corregir la rugositat de la superfície del mar. La missió Soil Moisture Active Passive (SMAP, 2015-2018) de la NASA és la segona dedicada a mesurar SM. Porta un radiòmetre d'apertura real i polarització completa i un radar d'apertura sintètica (SAR) per una millor resolució espaial i detecció de congelació/descongelació. Aquesta tesi està enfocada en analitzar la informació geofísica que pot obtenir-se de les observacions a banda L d'SMOS, Aquarius i SMAP. La seva investigació està estructurada com: -Intercomparació de temperatures de brillantor en zones seleccionades. Es proposa un nou mètode per mesurar la consistència entre les dades radiomètriques d'SMOS i Aquarius sobre el rang dinàmic complet d'observacions (terra, gel, oceà). Això permet detectar diferències espaials/temporals o biaixos sense limitacions latitudinals ni creuaments. Aquest pas es necessari per combinar observacions de diferents instruments en un llarg conjunt de dades per estudis mediambientals, hidrològics o climatològics. -Efecte de gruix de gel en teledetecció de gel continental a l'Antàrtida. S'explora la relació entre les variacions espaials del gruix de gel antàrtic i els canvis detectats a les mesures d'SMOS i Aquarius. L'emissivitat de l'Antàrtida es analitzada per discernir el rol de les contribucions geofísiques (capes de gel a diferents profunditats i llacs subglacials) al senyal observat. S'avalua l'estabilitat del senyal a banda L sobre la zona est de l'altiplà antàrtic, lloc per calibratge/validació de satèl·lits de microones. -Sinèrgia de microones/òptic per teledetecció de SM multiescala. S'avalua la correlació entre la SM i la temperatura de la superfície del sòl (LST) per entendre millor la relació SM-LST a través de processos físics d'evapotranspiració i inèrcia tèrmica. Es proposa un nou mètode per mesurar la humitat crítica utilitzant sèries temporals de SM i LST de satèl·lit. S'analitza l'ús de la SM de SMOS amb la LST de teledetecció per refinar algorismes de desagregació de SM. -Comparació de paràmetres passius i actius de microones relatius a la vegetació. Recent investigació ha mostrat que l'opacitat, sensible a la biomassa i el contingut d'aigua, i l'albedo, relacionat amb l'estructura, poden ser recuperats d'observacions passives a banda L. S'exploren les relacions entre aquests dos paràmetres i estimadors de vegetació derivats de radar utilitzant les observacions d'avió de l'experiment de validació d'SMAP 2012 (SMAPVEX12). Les relacions obtingudes podrien permetre millors recuperacions de SM en sistemes actius/passius i estimar les propietats de la vegetació a alta resolució utilitzant mesures de SAR. La tesi s'ha desenvolupat dins les activitats del Barcelona Expert Centre (BEC). Els resultats presentats contribueixen a l'ús de la banda L a diferents disciplines científiques com la climatologia, la criosfera, la hidrologia i l'ecologia

Relationship between aquarius L-band active and passive multi-year observations over Australia

This PFC is focused in evaluating the feasibility of doing a combined changed algorithm to simplify the process of low resolution downscaling using high resolution.The aim of this Thesis is to further our understanding of the geophysical information that can be estimated from active and passive L-band sensors. All data was obtained from NASA's satellite Aquarius durin the period Sept. 2011- August 2014

The Determination of Surface Salinity with the European SMOS Space Mission

The European Space Agency Soil Moisture and Ocean Salinity (SMOS) mission aims at obtaining global maps of soil moisture and sea surface salinity from space for large-scale and climatic studies. It uses an L-band (1400–1427 MHz) Microwave Interferometric Radiometer by Aperture Synthesis to measure brightness temperature of the earth’s surface at horizontal and vertical polarizations ( h and v). These two parameters will be used together to retrieve the geophysical parameters. The retrieval of salinity is a complex process that requires the knowledge of other environmental information and an accurate processing of the radiometer measurements. Here, we present recent results obtained from several studies and field experiments that were part of the SMOS mission, and highlight the issues still to be solved

Uncertainty quantification of a radiative transfer model and a machine learning technique for use as observation operators in the assimilation of microwave observations into a land surface model to improve soil moisture and terrestrial snow

Soil moisture and terrestrial snow mass are two important hydrological states needed to accurately quantify terrestrial water storage and streamflow. Soil moisture and terrestrial snow mass can be measured using ground-based instrument networks, estimated using advanced land surface models, and retrieved via satellite imagery. However, each method has its own inherent sources of error and uncertainty. This leads to the application of data assimilation to obtain optimal estimates of soil moisture and snow mass. Before conducting data assimilation (DA) experiments, this dissertation explored the use of two different observation operators within a DA framework: a L-band radiative transfer model (RTM) for soil moisture and support vector machine (SVM) regression for soil terrestrial snow mass. First, L-band brightness temperature (Tb) estimated from the RTM after being calibrated against multi-angular SMOS Tb's showed good performance in both ascending and descending overpasses across North America except in regions with sub-grid scale lakes and dense forest. Detailed analysis of RTM-derived L-band Tb in terms of soil hydraulic parameters and vegetation types suggests the need for further improvement of RTM-derived Tb in regions with relatively large porosity, large wilting point, or grassland type vegetation. Secondly, a SVM regression technique was developed with explicit consideration of the first-order physics of photon scattering as a function of different training target sets, training window lengths, and delineation of snow wetness over snow-covered terrain. The overall results revealed that prediction accuracy of the SVM was strongly linked with the first-order physics of electromagnetic responses of different snow conditions. After careful evaluation of the observation operators, C-band backscatter observations over Western Colorado collected by Sentinel-1 were merged into an advanced land surface model using a SVM and a one-dimensional ensemble Kalman filter. In general, updated snow mass estimates using the Sentinel-1 DA framework showed modest improvements in comparison to ground-based measurements of snow water equivalent (SWE) and snow depth. These results motivate further application of the outlined assimilation schemes over larger regions in order to improve the characterization of the terrestrial hydrological cycle

Ice Sheet and Sea Ice Ultrawideband Microwave radiometric Airborne eXperiment (ISSIUMAX) in Antarctica: first results from Terra Nova Bay

An airborne microwave wide-band radiometer (500–2000 MHz) was operated for the first time in Antarctica to better understand the emission properties of sea ice, outlet glaciers and the interior ice sheet from Terra Nova Bay to Dome C. The different glaciological regimes were revealed to exhibit unique spectral signatures in this portion of the microwave spectrum. Generally, the brightness temperatures over a vertically homogeneous ice sheet are warmest at the lowest frequencies, consistent with models that predict that those channels sensed the deeper, warmer parts of the ice sheet. Vertical heterogeneities in the ice property profiles can alter this basic interpretation of the signal. Spectra along the lengths of outlet glaciers were modulated by the deposition and erosion of snow, driven by strong katabatic winds. Similar to previous experiments in Greenland, the brightness temperatures across the frequency band were low in crevasse areas. Variations in brightness temperature were consistent with spatial changes in sea ice type identified in satellite imagery and in situ ground-penetrating radar data. The results contribute to a better understanding of the utility of microwave wide-band radiometry for cryospheric studies and also advance knowledge of the important physics underlying existing L-band radiometers operating in space.</p

Study of salinity retrieval errors for the SMOS mission

Memoria de tesis doctoral presentada por Carolina Gabarró Prats para obtener el título de Doctora por la Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya (UPC), realizada bajo la dirección del Dr. Jordi Font Ferré del Institut de Ciències del Mar (ICM-CSIC) y del Dr. Adriano Camps Carmona.-- 201 pages[CAT] El treball realitzat en aquesta tesi està emmarcat en la missió SMOS (Soil Moisture and Ocean Salinity) de l’Agència Espacial Europea. El satèl•lit es llançarà el febrer del 2007, i mesurarà la salinitat superficial del mar i la humitat del sòl. L’instrument (MIRAS) consisteix en un radiòmetre interferomètric en banda L (1,400-1,430 GHz). Serà la primera vegada que es posarà en òrbita un instrument d’aquestes característiques i que es mesuraran aquests paràmetres des de l’espai. No obstant, encara son molts els aspectes científics que queden per resoldre. Aquesta tesi, doncs, ha intentat abordar alguns del temes oberts en la recuperació de la salinitat a partir de les mesures de SMOS. [...][EN] This PhD thesis has been done in the framework of the SMOS (Soil Moisture and Ocean Salinity) mission, from the European Space Agency. This satellite will be launched in February 2007 and will provide global sea surface salinity and soil moisture maps, variables that never have been measured before from space. The payload instrument (MIRAS) is an L-band interferometric radiometer. This will be the first time an instrument with this characteristics is put in orbit. However, there are still a lot of issues that need to be solved. This thesis is focused on some open questions of the salinity retrieval process from SMOS measurements. [...]Peer reviewe

Ground, Proximal, and Satellite Remote Sensing of Soil Moisture

Soil moisture (SM) is a key hydrologic state variable that is of significant importance for numerous Earth and environmental science applications that directly impact the global environment and human society. Potential applications include, but are not limited to, forecasting of weather and climate variability; prediction and monitoring of drought conditions; management and allocation of water resources; agricultural plant production and alleviation of famine; prevention of natural disasters such as wild fires, landslides, floods, and dust storms; or monitoring of ecosystem response to climate change. Because of the importance and wide‐ranging applicability of highly variable spatial and temporal SM information that links the water, energy, and carbon cycles, significant efforts and resources have been devoted in recent years to advance SM measurement and monitoring capabilities from the point to the global scales. This review encompasses recent advances and the state‐of‐the‐art of ground, proximal, and novel SM remote sensing techniques at various spatial and temporal scales and identifies critical future research needs and directions to further advance and optimize technology, analysis and retrieval methods, and the application of SM information to improve the understanding of critical zone moisture dynamics. Despite the impressive progress over the last decade, there are still many opportunities and needs to, for example, improve SM retrieval from remotely sensed optical, thermal, and microwave data and opportunities for novel applications of SM information for water resources management, sustainable environmental development, and food security

A Comprehensive Review on Water Quality Parameters Estimation Using Remote Sensing Techniques

Remotely sensed data can reinforce the abilities of water resources researchers and decision makers to monitor waterbodies more effectively. Remote sensing techniques have been widely used to measure the qualitative parameters of waterbodies (i.e., suspended sediments, colored dissolved organic matter (CDOM), chlorophyll-a, and pollutants). A large number of different sensors on board various satellites and other platforms, such as airplanes, are currently used to measure the amount of radiation at different wavelengths reflected from the water’s surface. In this review paper, various properties (spectral, spatial and temporal, etc.) of the more commonly employed spaceborne and airborne sensors are tabulated to be used as a sensor selection guide. Furthermore, this paper investigates the commonly used approaches and sensors employed in evaluating and quantifying the eleven water quality parameters. The parameters include: chlorophyll-a (chl-a), colored dissolved organic matters (CDOM), Secchi disk depth (SDD), turbidity, total suspended sediments (TSS), water temperature (WT), total phosphorus (TP), sea surface salinity (SSS), dissolved oxygen (DO), biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and chemical oxygen demand (COD)

Comparación de las temperaturas de brillo en Banda L proporcionadas por SMOS y Aquarius sobre distintas zonas de la Tierra

En esta Tesis Doctoral se analizan datos procedentes de dos misiones espaciales de observación de la Tierra que han coincidido en el tiempo, SMOS (Soil Moisture Ocean Salinity), de la European Space Agency (ESA) y Aquarius, de la National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). Estas misiones miden la temperatura de brillo de la Tierra en la banda L de microondas, entre otras variables geofísicas. Este trabajo se centra, fundamentalmente, en la comparación de este parámetro proporcionado por ambas misiones. Las diferentes resoluciones espaciales que proporcionan los sensores de ambos satélites hace difícil la comparación y esto ha motivado la aplicación de diferentes técnicas o métodos comparativos – puramente geométricos, geofísicos y más puramente físicos- y para ello se han evaluado los errores respectivos de cada procedimiento sobre nueve diferentes zonas continentales y marinas con diferente grado de homogeneidad o heterogeneidad. Los métodos empleados han sido: método de las áreas, en el que se hace una media ponderada de las temperaturas de brillo de los pixeles de SMOS que están dentro del footprint de Aquarius, método de los usos de suelo, donde los pesos de la ponderación se obtienen de los diferentes usos del suelo dentro de los footprints de ambos instrumentos, método del TVDI (Temperature Vegetation Dryness Index), donde se considera el diferente grado de sequedad/humedad de la superficie y finalmente el método de la matriz de ganancia que, para ponderar, tiene en cuenta el diagrama de antena de los sensores. Se han tenido también en cuenta, lógicamente, otras diferencias importantes que existen entre ambos sensores, como por ejemplo, que SMOS consiste en un radiómetro interferométrico de apertura sintética, MIRAS (Microwave Imaging Radiometer using Aperture Synthesis), mientras que Aquarius tiene un radiómetro de apertura real, las diferencias en las horas respectivas de paso de ambos satélites, etc. Obtenemos unos resultados altamente significativos y novedosos al utilizar los diagramas de antena de los instrumentos. Los datos utilizados de SMOS corresponden a productos de nivel 3 de temperatura de brillo con ángulo de incidencia de 27.5º y proporcionados por CATDS (Centre Aval de Traitement des Données SMOS). Los datos de Aquarius corresponden a temperaturas de brillo adquiridas por el inner beam. En ambas configuraciones se consideran ambas polarizaciones, horizontal y vertical. Como era de esperar, es el método de la matriz de ganancia es el que consigue mejores resultados, reduciendo considerablemente los errores en todas las zonas y con ambas polarizaciones. El método del TVDI necesita datos complementarios de un tercer sensor MODIS (MODerate-resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer), para poder aplicarse. Este método tiene la ventaja de que considera los aspectos dinámicos de la evolución de la superficie, lógicamente en el caso de las superficies continentales, lo cual representa una ventaja frente a los métodos más estáticos de las áreas y de los usos del suelo