Brain dysfunctions and neurotoxicity induced by psychostimulants in experimental models and humans: an overview of recent findings

Preclinical and clinical studies indicate that psychostimulants, in addition to having abuse potential, may elicit brain dysfunctions and/or neurotoxic effects. Central toxicity induced by psychostimulants may pose serious health risks since the recreational use of these substances is on the rise among young people and adults. The present review provides an overview of recent research, conducted between 2018 and 2023, focusing on brain dysfunctions and neurotoxic effects elicited in experimental models and humans by amphetamine, cocaine, methamphetamine, 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine, methylphenidate, caffeine, and nicotine. Detailed elucidation of factors and mechanisms that underlie psychostimulant-induced brain dysfunction and neurotoxicity is crucial for understanding the acute and enduring noxious brain effects that may occur in individuals who use psychostimulants for recreational and/or therapeutic purposes

Inflammasome Activation by Methamphetamine Potentiates Lipopolysaccharide Stimulation of IL-1β Production in Microglia

Methamphetamine (Meth) is a psychostimulant drug that is widely abused all around the world. The administration of Meth causes a strong instant euphoria effect, and long-term of abuse is correlative of drug-dependence and neurotoxicity. The neuroimaging studies demonstrated that the long-term abuse of Meth is associated with the reduction of the dopamine transporter (DAT) and vesicular monoamine transporter (VMAT2) in the striatum. Neuroinflammation is well-accepted as an important mechanism underlying the Meth-induced neurotoxicity. The over-activated microglia were found both in Meth human abusers and animal models. NACHT, LRR, and PYD domains-containing protein 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome is the most predominant Nod-like receptor (NLR) expressed in microglia and is involved in the pathogenesis of many neurodegenerative diseases. In recent years, multiple lines of evidence suggest that the activation of NLRP3 inflammasome is associated with drug abuse induced innate immune system activation both in central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS). We investigated the role of NLRP3 inflammasome in Meth-induced microglial activation. Meth induced the production of mitochondrial ROS and disruption of lysosomal membrane integrity, which served as the second activation signal of NLRP3 inflammasome. The activation of NLRP3 inflammasome led to the cleavage of pro-IL-1β and subsequent release of biologically active IL-1β. By blocking the inflammasome activation, we successfully attenuated the neuronal apoptosis induced by supernatants of Meth-treated microglia. It is well-known that Meth abuse exacerbates HIV-1-associated neurocognitive disorders (HAND). However, the mechanism of how Meth potentiates HAND is not fully understood. Ample evidence indicates that both Meth and HIV-1 cause microglial activation and resultant secretion of proinflammatory molecules leading to neuronal injury and ultimately the development of HAND. Inflammasome is the key signaling platform involved in HIV-1-associated microglia activation and the production of proinflammatory molecules. We studied the synergistic effects of HIV-1 glycoprotein protein 120 (gp120) and Meth in microglial NLRP3 inflammasome activation. Gp120 upregulated the pro-IL-1β and thus, primed the microglia as the first signal. The subsequent stimulation of Meth as the second signal further activates the inflammasome that promotes the processing and release of IL-1β. The overactivated ROS system is potentially relative to gp120- and Meth-induced inflammasome activation

Cellular and molecular mechanisms involved in the neurotoxicity of opioid and psychostimulant drugs

Substance abuse and addiction are the most costly of all the neuropsychiatric disorders. In the last decades, much progress has been achieved in understanding the effects of the drugs of abuse in the brain. However, efficient treatments that prevent relapse have not been developed. Drug addiction is now considered a brain disease, because the abuse of drugs affects several brain functions. Neurological impairments observed in drug addicts may reflect drug-induced neuronal dysfunction and neurotoxicity. The drugs of abuse directly or indirectly affect neurotransmitter systems, particularly dopaminergic and glutamatergic neurons. This review explores the literature reporting cellular and molecular alterations reflecting the cytotoxicity induced by amphetamines, cocaine and opiates in neuronal systems. The neurotoxic effects of drugs of abuse are often associated with oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, apoptosis and inhibition of neurogenesis, among other mechanisms. Understanding the mechanisms that underlie brain dysfunction observed in drug-addicted individuals may contribute to improve the treatment of drug addiction, which may have social and economic consequences.http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6SYS-4S50K2J-1/1/7d11c902193bfa3f1f57030572f7034

Nupr1/Chop signal axis is involved in mitochondrion-related endothelial cell apoptosis induced by methamphetamine

Citation: Cai, D., Huang, E., Luo, B., Yang, Y., Zhang, F., Liu, C., . . . Wang, H. (2016). Nupr1/Chop signal axis is involved in mitochondrion-related endothelial cell apoptosis induced by methamphetamine. Cell Death & Disease, 7, 14. http://doi.org/10.1038/cddis.2016.67Methamphetamine (METH) abuse has been a serious global public health problem for decades. Previous studies have shown that METH causes detrimental effects on the nervous and cardiovascular systems. METH-induced cardiovascular toxicity has been, in part, attributed to its destructive effect on vascular endothelial cells. However, the underlying mechanism of METH-caused endothelium disruption has not been investigated systematically. In this study, we identified a novel pathway involved in endothelial cell apoptosis induced by METH. We demonstrated that exposure to METH caused mitochondrial apoptosis in human umbilical vein endothelial cells and rat cardiac microvascular endothelial cells in vitro as well as in rat cardiac endothelial cells in vivo. We found that METH mediated endothelial cell apoptosis through Nupr1-Chop/P53-PUMA/Beclin1 signaling pathway. Specifically, METH exposure increased the expression of Nupr1, Chop, P53 and PUMA. Elevated p53 expression raised up PUMA expression, which initiated mitochondrial apoptosis by downregulating antiapoptotic Bcl-2, followed by upregulation of proapoptotic Bax, resulting in translocation of cytochrome c (cyto c), an apoptogenic factor, from the mitochondria to cytoplasm and activation of caspase-dependent pathways. Interestingly, increased Beclin1, upregulated by Chop, formed a ternary complex with Bcl-2, thereby decreasing the dissociative Bcl-2. As a result, the ratio of dissociative Bcl-2 to Bax was also significantly decreased, which led to translocation of cyto c and initiated more drastic apoptosis. These findings were supported by data showing METH-induced apoptosis was significantly inhibited by silencing Nupr1, Chop or P53, or by PUMA or Beclin1 knockdown. Based on the present data, a novel mechanistic model of METH-induced endothelial cell toxicity is proposed. Collectively, these results highlight that the Nupr1-Chop/P53-PUMA/Beclin1 pathway is essential for mitochondrion-related METH-induced endothelial cell apoptosis and may be a potential therapeutic target for METH-caused cardiovascular toxicity. Future studies using knockout animal models are warranted to substantiate the present findings

The effect of early psychostimulant treatment on abuse liability and dopamine receptors

Examines whether the reinforcing properties of drugs of abuse were altered in adulthood by methylphenidate, more commonly known as Ritalin. Subjects were 108 rats of Sprague-Dawley descent (Harlan). Methylphenidate, or saline was administered daily to the subjects from the postnatal period (11-20 days old). The rats preference for morphine during early adulthood was measured using conditioned place preference. The number of dopamine D₂ receptors was measured in each rat and the correlation between receptor number and morphine preference was determined. Results indicate that rats pretreated with methylphenidate showed greater preference for morphine than saline pretreated rats and suggests that exposure to methylphenidate during the postnatal period increases the rewarding value of morphine

Investigations into the mechanisms of methamphetamine and oxygen-glucose deprivation -induced neurodegeneration: Implications for autophagy and apoptosis

Thesis Abstract Cellular demise is a well controlled and complex process. The role of apoptosis and their contribution to disease pathogenesis are well known. Yet, emerging evidence indicates that apoptosis interplay with autophagy may be more complex than previously thought. Autophagy may serve a pro-survival or cyto-destructive role depending on the cellular context and type of stressor. In this context the requirement for PKC-delta; in MA and ischemia-induced apoptotic cell death is briefly discussed. In the first portion of my thesis I investigated the cell death mechanism(s) underlying methamphetamine induced dopaminergic neurodegeneration. Oxidative stress has been shown to trigger mitochondrial damage and the induction of autophagy, a protein clearance system. We and others have previously demonstrated the induction of autophagy/apoptosis in MA-treated N27 cells; however the precise cellular mechanisms underlying MA-induced stimulation of autophagy/apoptosis remain unclear. The present study explores the following issues: (1) Does mitochondrial impairment precede autophagic induction. If so, does it occur independent of or in association with UPS dysfunction? (2) Does PKC-delta;, an oxidative stress sensor kinase, play a role in the mechanism of MA-induced cell death? If so, does it activate caspase-3 dependent cell death events? (3) What is the exact contribution of autophagy, is it cytoprotective or prodeath mechanism? Taken together, our results suggest that MA-induced dopaminergic neurotoxicity is likely caused, at least in part, by pronounced proteolytic cleavage of PKC-delta; and associated oxidative cell signaling events. Additionally, MA, through the induction of mitochondrial stress, activates autophagy as a cytoprotective mechanism to minimize the magnitude of neuronal cell death. In the second portion of my thesis I evaluated the role of PKC-delta; dependent cell death signaling events in striatal neuronal degeneration. Striatal ischemia is also often associated with oxidative stress associated cell death following reperfusion post cerebral ischemia. Using an OGD model of ischemia we demonstrated the occurrence of apoptotic cell death in mouse primary striatal neurons. As a key detector of oxidative stress, depolarization of mitochondria membrane potential and cytochrome c release into the cytoplasm are signs of mitochondrial impairment. Additionally, downstream events involve caspase-3 cleavage and PKC-delta; activation. Caspase-3 mediated proteolytic cleavage of PKC-delta; in the striatum as a result of ischemic insult is a novel finding which suggests PKC-delta; plays a regulatory role in striatal neuronal cell death. This finding is further supported from our data showing that cell death is attenuated in PKC-delta; knockout mice. Previous studies have shown neuron subtype specific susceptibility to ischemic insult in the striatum. Our investigation reveals that GABAergic neurons are more vulnerable to cell death during striatal ischemia, confirming different neuronal subtypes exhibit varying degrees of vulnerability to ischemic damage. In conclusion, despite the use of two different types of cellular injury models, namely MA and OGD-induced neurotoxicity, our findings underscore the importance of caspase-3 mediated PKC-delta; dependent cell death events in apoptotic cell death. This study demonstrates that PKC-delta; might represent a common cell death mechanism, facilitating neuronal demise following exposure to diverse cell stressors that are capable of causing apoptotic cell death

Alcohol Co-Administration Changes Mephedrone-Induced Alterations of Neuronal Activity

Mephedrone (4-MMC), despite its illegal status, is still a widely used psychoactive substance. Its effects closely mimic those of the classical stimulant drug methamphetamine (METH). Recent research suggests that unlike METH, 4-MMC is not neurotoxic on its own. However, the neurotoxic effects of 4-MMC may be precipitated under certain circumstances, such as administration at high ambient temperatures. Common use of 4-MMC in conjunction with alcohol raises the question whether this co-consumption could also precipitate neurotoxicity. A total of six groups of adolescent rats were treated twice daily for four consecutive days with vehicle, METH (5 mg/kg) or 4-MMC (30 mg/kg), with or without ethanol (1.5 g/kg). To investigate persistent delayed effects of the administrations at two weeks after the final treatments, manganese-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging brain scans were performed. Following the scans, brains were collected for Golgi staining and spine analysis. 4-MMC alone had only subtle effects on neuronal activity. When administered with ethanol, it produced a widespread pattern of deactivation, similar to what was seen with METH-treated rats. These effects were most profound in brain regions which are known to have high dopamine and serotonin activities including hippocampus, nucleus accumbens and caudate-putamen. In the regions showing the strongest activation changes, no morphological changes were observed in spine analysis. By itself 4-MMC showed few long-term effects. However, when co-administered with ethanol, the apparent functional adaptations were profound and comparable to those of neurotoxic METH.Peer reviewe

Dual-Hit Hypothesis for Dopamine Neurodegeneration and Motor Dysfunction

Glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) is a trophic factor for peripheral organs, spinal cord, and midbrain dopamine (DA) neurons. Studies have shown that GDNF levels decrease in the substantia nigra (SN) and striatum during normal aging and in patients with Parkinson\u27s disease. Furthermore, exogenous GDNF infusion protects DA neurons against injury induced by 6-hydroxydopamine, MPTP, and methamphetamine (METH). A heterozygous mouse model was created to assess whether a chronic reduction in this neurotrophic factor impacts motor function and the nigrostriatal DA system during the aging process. In this dissertation, two models of dopaminergic loss and motor dysfunction were characterized. First, a partial loss of GDNF demonstrated a slow, progressive loss of SN DAergic neurons as well as motor dysfunction with aging. Secondly, a possible model for a dual-hit hypothesis for dopamine neurodegeneration was described. In this model, mice with a partial loss of GDNF displayed an increase vulnerability to the neurotoxic effects of METH. To determine if the damage caused by these two factors was primarily by inflammatory processes, minocycline, a second-derivative tetracycline with anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective properties, was administered. Treatment with minocycline was able to reduce substantia nigra microglial activation and phosphorylated p38 MAPK in all groups. Although minocycline treatment was able to partially restore the lower levels of tyrosine hydroxylase seen in GDNF+/- mice, the antibiotic was unable to reverse the damage associated with METH treatment. Thus, increased age-related vulnerability of the DA system is seen when a genetic predisposition (GDNF depletion) is combined with a post-natal neurotoxic exposure (METH binge). This dual-hit model may be useful for studies of neuroprotective treatments

Alterações comportamentais e do metabolismo energético no transtorno do humor bipolar: evidências pré-clínicas e clínicas

Tese de Doutorado apresentada ao Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências da Saúde, da Universidade do Extremo Sul Catarinense – UNESC, para a obtenção do título de Doutor em Ciências da Saúde.O modelo animal de mania induzido por dextroanfetamina (d-AMPH) é descrito na literatura como um bom modelo animal de transtorno bipolar (TB). Entretanto, tem sido relatado diferenças entre os tipos de anfetaminas em induzir alterações comportamentais e neuroquímicas. Além disso, vários estudos sugerem que o TB está associado à disfunções no metabolismo energético. No presente estudo foi avaliado a diferença entre d-AMPH e metanfetamina (m-AMPH) sobre o comportamento e disfunção no metabolismo energético no cérebro de ratos. Foi avaliado também os efeitos de lítio (Li) e valproato (VPA) sobre as alterações comportamentais e sobre metabolismo energético induzidos por m-AMPH. Finalmente, comparamos os níveis de creatina quinase (CK) no soro de pacientes bipolares nas fases depressiva, maníaca e eutímica. Para tanto, o trabalho foi dividido em três partes. Parte 1: Ratos Wistar receberam uma injeção intraperitoneal (i.p) de salina, d-AMPH (2mg/kg) ou m-AMPH (0,25, 0,5, 1 ou 2mg/kg) e foram submetidos ao teste do campo aberto para avaliação comportamental 2 h após. Foi avaliada também a atividade das enzimas do ciclo de Krebs (citrato sintase, succinato desidrogenase e malato desidrogenase), dos complexos da cadeia respiratória mitocondrial (I, II, II-III, IV) e da CK no cérebro dos ratos. Parte 2: Foi administrado m-AMPH ou salina i.p em ratos Wistar durante 14 dias e entre o 8º e o 14º dia os animais eram tratados com Li, VPA ou salina via i.p. Os animais foram submetidos aos mesmos testes comportamentais e bioquímicos descritos na Parte1. Parte 3: Foram avaliados os níveis de CK no soro de pacientes bipolares - eutímicos, depressivos e em mania – que foram comparados com voluntários saudáveis. Na primeira parte do trabalho foi demonstrado que d-AMPH e m-AMPH aumentaram a atividade locomotora nos ratos. As visitas ao centro do campo aberto aumentaram com a administração de ambas as drogas na dose de 2mg/kg. A administração de m-AMPH na dose de 2mg/kg aumentou o comportamento estereotipado dos animais (sniffing). A administração tanto de d-AMPH quanto de m-AMPH diminuiu a atividade das enzimas do ciclo de Krebs, dos complexos da cadeia respiratória mitocondrial e da CK; entretanto, estes efeitos variam de acordo com a região cerebral avaliada. Na segunda parte do trabalho foi demonstrado que Li e VPA revertem a hiperatividade e alterações no metabolismo energético induzida por m-AMPH. Por fim, na terceira parte do trabalho foi demonstrado que durante a mania, os níveis de CK estão aumentados no soro dos pacientes bipolares quando comparado com voluntários saudáveis. Estes dados demonstram que a m-AMPH, mas não d-AMPH, induz comportamento estereotípico em ratos; porém, as duas drogas parecem ter efeitos similares sobre o metabolismo energético; e que, assim como a d-AMPH, a m-AMPH é capaz de induzir hiperatividade e disfunção no metabolismo energético que são revertidos por Li e VPA. As fases maníaca, depressiva e eutímica do TB, além de apresentarem sintomatologia distinta, também podem ser diferenciadas pelo nível de CK presente no soro dos pacientes. Entretanto, mais estudos são necessários para entender as diferenças observadas na atividade da CK durante as fases do TB.The animal model of mania induced by dextroamphetamine (d-AMPH) has been considered a good model for the study of bipolar disorder (BD). However, some studies have shown differences between amphetamines to induce both behavioral and biochemical changes. Besides, several studies have suggested that dysfunctional energy metabolism have a central role in BD. In the present study was investigated the potency of the d-AMPH and methamphetamine (m-AMPH) on the behavior and energetic dysfunction in the brain of rats. Were investigated also the effects of the lithium (Li) and valproate (VPT) on behavioral and energy metabolism changes in brain of rats undergoing treatment with the m-AMPH. Finally, was to compare serum creatine kinase (CK) levels between bipolar disorder patients, in the various phases (depressive, manic, and euthymic). The work was divided into three parts. Part 1: Wistar rats were given single intraperitoneal (i.p) injections of saline, d-AMPH (2 mg/kg) or m-AMPH (0.25, 0.5, 1 or 2 mg/kg). Locomotor behavior was assessed using the open-field task and activities of Krebs cycle enzymes (citrate synthase and succinate dehydrogenase), mitochondrial respiratory chain complexes (I, II, III and IV) and CK were measured in brain of rats. Part 2: Wistar rats were first given m-AMPH or saline for 14 days, and then, between days 8 and 14, rats were treated with Li, VPA or saline i.p. The animals were submitted to the same behavioral and biochemical tests described in Part 1. Part 3: Was compared serum CK levels between BD patients, in the various phases (depressive, manic, and euthymic), and healthy volunteers. In the first part of the study was demonstrated that d-AMPH and m-AMPH (all doses administered) increased locomotor activity of animals. The numbers of visits to the centre were increased by d-AMPH and m-AMPH at 2 mg/kg. The m-AMPH administration at 2mg/kg increased the amount of stereotypic behavior. The amphetamines significantly decreased the activities of Krebs cycle enzymes, mitochondrial respiratory chain complexes and CK; nevertheless, this effect varied depending on the brain region evaluated. In the second part of this study we found that Li and VPA reversed m-AMPH-induced hyperactivity. Besides, Li and VPA reversed m-AMPH-induced energetic metabolism dysfunction; however, the effects of Li and VPA were dependent on the brain region analyzed. Finally, in the third part of this study was demonstrated that CK levels were higher in the manic patients than in the controls. Together these data show that: 1) at high doses, m-AMPH increased stereotyped (sniffing) behavior in rats, but d-AMPH did not. However, this study shows that d-AMPH and m-AMPH seem to have similar effects on the brains energetic metabolism; and the d-AMPH, m-AMPH is able to induced hyperactivity and energetic metabolism dysfunction, both seen in BD. In addition, Li and VPA reversed m-AMPH’s effects on locomotor activity and energetic metabolism. The clinical differences among the depressive, manic, and euthymic phases of BD are paralleled by contrasting levels of CK. However, further studies are needed in order to understand the state-dependent differences observed in serum CK activity