Learning from Noisy Data in Statistical Machine Translation

In dieser Arbeit wurden Methoden entwickelt, die in der Lage sind die negativen Effekte von verrauschten Daten in SMT Systemen zu senken und dadurch die Leistung des Systems zu steigern. Hierbei wird das Problem in zwei verschiedenen Schritten des Lernprozesses behandelt: Bei der Vorverarbeitung und während der Modellierung. Bei der Vorverarbeitung werden zwei Methoden zur Verbesserung der statistischen Modelle durch die Erhöhung der Qualität von Trainingsdaten entwickelt. Bei der Modellierung werden verschiedene Möglichkeiten vorgestellt, um Daten nach ihrer Nützlichkeit zu gewichten. Zunächst wird der Effekt des Entfernens von False-Positives vom Parallel Corpus gezeigt. Ein Parallel Corpus besteht aus einem Text in zwei Sprachen, wobei jeder Satz einer Sprache mit dem entsprechenden Satz der anderen Sprache gepaart ist. Hierbei wird vorausgesetzt, dass die Anzahl der Sätzen in beiden Sprachversionen gleich ist. False-Positives in diesem Sinne sind Satzpaare, die im Parallel Corpus gepaart sind aber keine Übersetzung voneinander sind. Um diese zu erkennen wird ein kleiner und fehlerfreier paralleler Corpus (Clean Corpus) vorausgesetzt. Mit Hilfe verschiedenen lexikalischen Eigenschaften werden zuverlässig False-Positives vor der Modellierungsphase gefiltert. Eine wichtige lexikalische Eigenschaft hierbei ist das vom Clean Corpus erzeugte bilinguale Lexikon. In der Extraktion dieses bilingualen Lexikons werden verschiedene Heuristiken implementiert, die zu einer verbesserten Leistung führen. Danach betrachten wir das Problem vom Extrahieren der nützlichsten Teile der Trainingsdaten. Dabei ordnen wir die Daten basierend auf ihren Bezug zur Zieldomaine. Dies geschieht unter der Annahme der Existenz eines guten repräsentativen Tuning Datensatzes. Da solche Tuning Daten typischerweise beschränkte Größe haben, werden Wortähnlichkeiten benutzt um die Abdeckung der Tuning Daten zu erweitern. Die im vorherigen Schritt verwendeten Wortähnlichkeiten sind entscheidend für die Qualität des Verfahrens. Aus diesem Grund werden in der Arbeit verschiedene automatische Methoden zur Ermittlung von solche Wortähnlichkeiten ausgehend von monoligual und biligual Corpora vorgestellt. Interessanterweise ist dies auch bei beschränkten Daten möglich, indem auch monolinguale Daten, die in großen Mengen zur Verfügung stehen, zur Ermittlung der Wortähnlichkeit herangezogen werden. Bei bilingualen Daten, die häufig nur in beschränkter Größe zur Verfügung stehen, können auch weitere Sprachpaare herangezogen werden, die mindestens eine Sprache mit dem vorgegebenen Sprachpaar teilen. Im Modellierungsschritt behandeln wir das Problem mit verrauschten Daten, indem die Trainingsdaten anhand der Güte des Corpus gewichtet werden. Wir benutzen Statistik signifikante Messgrößen, um die weniger verlässlichen Sequenzen zu finden und ihre Gewichtung zu reduzieren. Ähnlich zu den vorherigen Ansätzen, werden Wortähnlichkeiten benutzt um das Problem bei begrenzten Daten zu behandeln. Ein weiteres Problem tritt allerdings auf sobald die absolute Häufigkeiten mit den gewichteten Häufigkeiten ersetzt werden. In dieser Arbeit werden hierfür Techniken zur Glättung der Wahrscheinlichkeiten in dieser Situation entwickelt. Die Größe der Trainingsdaten werden problematisch sobald man mit Corpora von erheblichem Volumen arbeitet. Hierbei treten zwei Hauptschwierigkeiten auf: Die Länge der Trainingszeit und der begrenzte Arbeitsspeicher. Für das Problem der Trainingszeit wird ein Algorithmus entwickelt, der die rechenaufwendigen Berechnungen auf mehrere Prozessoren mit gemeinsamem Speicher ausführt. Für das Speicherproblem werden speziale Datenstrukturen und Algorithmen für externe Speicher benutzt. Dies erlaubt ein effizientes Training von extrem großen Modellne in Hardware mit begrenztem Speicher

Translation Alignment and Extraction Within a Lexica-Centered Iterative Workflow

This thesis addresses two closely related problems. The first, translation alignment, consists of identifying bilingual document pairs that are translations of each other within multilingual document collections (document alignment); identifying sentences, titles, etc, that are translations of each other within bilingual document pairs (sentence alignment); and identifying corresponding word and phrase translations within bilingual sentence pairs (phrase alignment). The second is extraction of bilingual pairs of equivalent word and multi-word expressions, which we call translation equivalents (TEs), from sentence- and phrase-aligned parallel corpora. While these same problems have been investigated by other authors, their focus has been on fully unsupervised methods based mostly or exclusively on parallel corpora. Bilingual lexica, which are basically lists of TEs, have not been considered or given enough importance as resources in the treatment of these problems. Human validation of TEs, which consists of manually classifying TEs as correct or incorrect translations, has also not been considered in the context of alignment and extraction. Validation strengthens the importance of infrequent TEs (most of the entries of a validated lexicon) that otherwise would be statistically unimportant. The main goal of this thesis is to revisit the alignment and extraction problems in the context of a lexica-centered iterative workflow that includes human validation. Therefore, the methods proposed in this thesis were designed to take advantage of knowledge accumulated in human-validated bilingual lexica and translation tables obtained by unsupervised methods. Phrase-level alignment is a stepping stone for several applications, including the extraction of new TEs, the creation of statistical machine translation systems, and the creation of bilingual concordances. Therefore, for phrase-level alignment, the higher accuracy of human-validated bilingual lexica is crucial for achieving higher quality results in these downstream applications. There are two main conceptual contributions. The first is the coverage maximization approach to alignment, which makes direct use of the information contained in a lexicon, or in translation tables when this is small or does not exist. The second is the introduction of translation patterns which combine novel and old ideas and enables precise and productive extraction of TEs. As material contributions, the alignment and extraction methods proposed in this thesis have produced source materials for three lines of research, in the context of three PhD theses (two of them already defended), all sharing with me the supervision of my advisor. The topics of these lines of research are statistical machine translation, algorithms and data structures for indexing and querying phrase-aligned parallel corpora, and bilingual lexica classification and generation. Four publications have resulted directly from the work presented in this thesis and twelve from the collaborative lines of research

Harnessing sense-level information for semantically augmented knowledge extraction

Nowadays, building accurate computational models for the semantics of language lies at the very core of Natural Language Processing and Artificial Intelligence. A first and foremost step in this respect consists in moving from word-based to sense-based approaches, in which operating explicitly at the level of word senses enables a model to produce more accurate and unambiguous results. At the same time, word senses create a bridge towards structured lexico-semantic resources, where the vast amount of available machine-readable information can help overcome the shortage of annotated data in many languages and domains of knowledge. This latter phenomenon, known as the knowledge acquisition bottlneck, is a crucial problem that hampers the development of large-scale, data-driven approaches for many Natural Language Processing tasks, especially when lexical semantics is directly involved. One of these tasks is Information Extraction, where an effective model has to cope with data sparsity, as well as with lexical ambiguity that can arise at the level of both arguments and relational phrases. Even in more recent Information Extraction approaches where semantics is implicitly modeled, these issues have not yet been addressed in their entirety. On the other hand, however, having access to explicit sense-level information is a very demanding task on its own, which can rarely be performed with high accuracy on a large scale. With this in mind, in ths thesis we will tackle a two-fold objective: our first focus will be on studying fully automatic approaches to obtain high-quality sense-level information from textual corpora; then, we will investigate in depth where and how such sense-level information has the potential to enhance the extraction of knowledge from open text. In the first part of this work, we will explore three different disambiguation scenar- ios (semi-structured text, parallel text, and definitional text) and devise automatic disambiguation strategies that are not only capable of scaling to different corpus sizes and different languages, but that actually take advantage of a multilingual and/or heterogeneous setting to improve and refine their performance. As a result, we will obtain three sense-annotated resources that, when tested experimentally with a baseline system in a series of downstream semantic tasks (i.e. Word Sense Disam- biguation, Entity Linking, Semantic Similarity), show very competitive performances on standard benchmarks against both manual and semi-automatic competitors. In the second part we will instead focus on Information Extraction, with an emphasis on Open Information Extraction (OIE), where issues like sparsity and lexical ambiguity are especially critical, and study how to exploit at best sense-level information within the extraction process. We will start by showing that enforcing a deeper semantic analysis in a definitional setting enables a full-fledged extraction pipeline to compete with state-of-the-art approaches based on much larger (but noisier) data. We will then demonstrate how working at the sense level at the end of an extraction pipeline is also beneficial: indeed, by leveraging sense-based techniques, very heterogeneous OIE-derived data can be aligned semantically, and unified with respect to a common sense inventory. Finally, we will briefly shift the focus to the more constrained setting of hypernym discovery, and study a sense-aware supervised framework for the task that is robust and effective, even when trained on heterogeneous OIE-derived hypernymic knowledge

Multi-word unit processing in machine translation. Developing and using language resources for multi-word unit processing in machine translation

2011 - 2012XI n.s

Fine-Grained Linguistic Soft Constraints on Statistical Natural Language Processing Models

This dissertation focuses on effective combination of data-driven natural language processing (NLP) approaches with linguistic knowledge sources that are based on manual text annotation or word grouping according to semantic commonalities. I gainfully apply fine-grained linguistic soft constraints -- of syntactic or semantic nature -- on statistical NLP models, evaluated in end-to-end state-of-the-art statistical machine translation (SMT) systems. The introduction of semantic soft constraints involves intrinsic evaluation on word-pair similarity ranking tasks, extension from words to phrases, application in a novel distributional paraphrase generation technique, and an introduction of a generalized framework of which these soft semantic and syntactic constraints can be viewed as instances, and in which they can be potentially combined. Fine granularity is key in the successful combination of these soft constraints, in many cases. I show how to softly constrain SMT models by adding fine-grained weighted features, each preferring translation of only a specific syntactic constituent. Previous attempts using coarse-grained features yielded negative results. I also show how to softly constrain corpus-based semantic models of words (“distributional profiles”) to effectively create word-sense-aware models, by using semantic word grouping information found in a manually compiled thesaurus. Previous attempts, using hard constraints and resulting in aggregated, coarse-grained models, yielded lower gains. A novel paraphrase generation technique incorporating these soft semantic constraints is then also evaluated in a SMT system. This paraphrasing technique is based on the Distributional Hypothesis. The main advantage of this novel technique over current “pivoting” techniques for paraphrasing is the independence from parallel texts, which are a limited resource. The evaluation is done by augmenting translation models with paraphrase-based translation rules, where fine-grained scoring of paraphrase-based rules yields significantly higher gains. The model augmentation includes a novel semantic reinforcement component: In many cases there are alternative paths of generating a paraphrase-based translation rule. Each of these paths reinforces a dedicated score for the “goodness” of the new translation rule. This augmented score is then used as a soft constraint, in a weighted log-linear feature, letting the translation model learn how much to “trust” the paraphrase-based translation rules. The work reported here is the first to use distributional semantic similarity measures to improve performance of an end-to-end phrase-based SMT system. The unified framework for statistical NLP models with soft linguistic constraints enables, in principle, the combination of both semantic and syntactic constraints -- and potentially other constraints, too -- in a single SMT model

Annotation, exploitation and evaluation of parallel corpora

Exchange between the translation studies and the computational linguistics communities has traditionally not been very intense. Among other things, this is reflected by the different views on parallel corpora. While computational linguistics does not always strictly pay attention to the translation direction (e.g. when translation rules are extracted from (sub)corpora which actually only consist of translations), translation studies are amongst other things concerned with exactly comparing source and target texts (e.g. to draw conclusions on interference and standardization effects). However, there has recently been more exchange between the two fields – especially when it comes to the annotation of parallel corpora. This special issue brings together the different research perspectives. Its contributions show – from both perspectives – how the communities have come to interact in recent years

Semantic vector representations of senses, concepts and entities and their applications in natural language processing

Representation learning lies at the core of Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Natural Language Processing (NLP). Most recent research has focused on develop representations at the word level. In particular, the representation of words in a vector space has been viewed as one of the most important successes of lexical semantics and NLP in recent years. The generalization power and flexibility of these representations have enabled their integration into a wide variety of text-based applications, where they have proved extremely beneficial. However, these representations are hampered by an important limitation, as they are unable to model different meanings of the same word. In order to deal with this issue, in this thesis we analyze and develop flexible semantic representations of meanings, i.e. senses, concepts and entities. This finer distinction enables us to model semantic information at a deeper level, which in turn is essential for dealing with ambiguity. In addition, we view these (vector) representations as a connecting bridge between lexical resources and textual data, encoding knowledge from both sources. We argue that these sense-level representations, similarly to the importance of word embeddings, constitute a first step for seamlessly integrating explicit knowledge into NLP applications, while focusing on the deeper sense level. Its use does not only aim at solving the inherent lexical ambiguity of language, but also represents a first step to the integration of background knowledge into NLP applications. Multilinguality is another key feature of these representations, as we explore the construction language-independent and multilingual techniques that can be applied to arbitrary languages, and also across languages. We propose simple unsupervised and supervised frameworks which make use of these vector representations for word sense disambiguation, a key application in natural language understanding, and other downstream applications such as text categorization and sentiment analysis. Given the nature of the vectors, we also investigate their effectiveness for improving and enriching knowledge bases, by reducing the sense granularity of their sense inventories and extending them with domain labels, hypernyms and collocations

Annotation, exploitation and evaluation of parallel corpora: TC3 I

Exchange between the translation studies and the computational linguistics communities has traditionally not been very intense. Among other things, this is reflected by the different views on parallel corpora. While computational linguistics does not always strictly pay attention to the translation direction (e.g. when translation rules are extracted from (sub)corpora which actually only consist of translations), translation studies are amongst other things concerned with exactly comparing source and target texts (e.g. to draw conclusions on interference and standardization effects). However, there has recently been more exchange between the two fields – especially when it comes to the annotation of parallel corpora. This special issue brings together the different research perspectives. Its contributions show – from both perspectives – how the communities have come to interact in recent years