Development of smart controller model for dual fuel generator systems

Application of dual fuel powered electric generators such as one of diesel and biogas has gained popularity locally both as emergency power supply units and in distributed power systems. Dual fuel generators use two fuel types simultaneously in their operations. This is however faced with challenges in control and fuel regulation since their operation must be economically feasible and convenient. To achieve this, an intelligent controller that regulates generator operations is necessary. This research work, set to determine operation characteristic of these generators and fuel‐load relationship of the dual fuel engines in order to design a control system for a dual fuel power generator system. Generator characteristics such as fuel consumption on various loads were obtained through experiments; it was found that injection of biogas in diesel engine saves diesel consumption by approximately 30% on low load and 60% on high load. The presented model switches the generator when needed and adjusts biogas inlet in steps proportional to the load. It works by monitoring load, injecting a small volume of biogas for loads below 10% and increasing it as the load increases to maximum possible volume for load above 80%. The model was tested through simulation of the obtained data on a Siemens ™ micro Logic controller demonstrating a solution to control challenges. This model logic for control and offers advanced logic electronic control for local applications. It is essential in providing a versatile solution for a middle sized diesel biogas dual fuel power generator control

Model-Based Control of Gasoline Partially Premixed Combustion

Partially Premixed Combustion (PPC) is an internal combustion engine concept that aims to yield low NOx and soot emission levels together with high engine efficiency. PPC belongs to the class of low temperature combustion concepts where the ignition delay is prolonged in order to promote the air-fuel-mixture homogeneity in the combustion chamber at the start of combustion. A more homogeneous combustion process in combination with high exhaust-gas recirculation (EGR) ratios gives lower combustion temperatures and thus decreased NOx and soot formation. The ignition delay is mainly controlled by temperature, gas-mixture composition, fuel type and fuel-injection timing. It has been shown that PPC run on gasoline fuel can provide sufficient ignition delays in conventional compression-ignition engines. The PPC concept differs from conventional direct-injection diesel combustion because of its increased sensitivity to intake conditions, its decreased combustion-phasing controllability and its high pressure-rise rates related to premixed combustion, this puts higher demands on the engine control system. This thesis investigates model predictive control (MPC) of PPC with the use of in-cylinder pressure sensors. Online heat-release analysis is used for the detection of the combustion phasing and the ignition delay that function as combustion-feedback signals. It is shown that the heat-release analysis could be automatically calibrated using nonlinear estimation methods, the heat-release analysis is also a central part of a presented online pressure-prediction method which can be used for combustion-timing optimization. Low-order autoignition models are studied and compared for the purpose of model-based control of the ignition-delay, the results show that simple mathematical models are sufficient when anipulating the intake-manifold conditions. The results also show that the relation between the injection timing and the ignition delay is not completely captured by these types of models when the injection timing is close to top-dead-center. Simultaneous control of the ignition delay and the combustion phasing using a dual-path EGR system, thermal management and fuel injection timings is studied and a control design is presented and evaluated experimentally. Closed-loop control of the pressure-rise rate using a pilot fuel injection is also studied and the multiple fuel-injection properties are characterized experimentally. Experiments show that the main-fuel injection controls the combustion timing and that the pilot-injection fuel could be used to decrease the main fuel injection ignition delay and thus the pressure-rise rate. The controllability of the pressure-rise rate was shown to be higher when the pilot injection was located close to the main-fuel injection. A pressure-rise-rate controller is presented and evaluated experimentally. All experiments presented in this thesis were conducted on a Scania D13 production engine with a modified gas-exchange system, the fuel used was a mixture of 80 % gasoline and 20 % N-heptane (by volume)

Impact of injection settings on gaseous emissions and particle size distribution in the dual-mode dual-fuel concept

This is the author's version of a work that was accepted for publication in International Journal of Engine Research. Changes resulting from the publishing process, such as peer review, editing, corrections, structural formatting, and other quality control mechanisms may not be reflected in this document. Changes may have been made to this work since it was submitted for publication. A definitive version was subsequently published as https://doi.org/10.1177/1468087419844413.[EN] Reactivity controlled compression ignition concept has been highlighted among the low temperature combustion strategies. However, this combustion strategy presents some problems related to high levels of hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide emissions at low load and high-pressure rise rate at high load. Therefore, to diminish these limitations, the dual-mode dual-fuel concept has been presented as an excellent alternative. This concept uses two fuels of different reactivity and switches from a dual-fuel fully premixed strategy (based on the reactivity controlled compression ignition concept) during low load to a diffusive nature during high load operation. However, the success of dual-mode dual-fuel concept depends to a large extent on the low reactivity/high reactivity fuel ratio and the injection settings. In this study, parametric variations of injection pressure and injection timing were experimentally performed to analyze the effect over each combustion process that encompasses the dual-mode dual-fuel concept and its consequent impact on gaseous and particles emissions, including an analysis of particle size distribution. The experimental results confirm how the use of an adequate injection strategy is indispensable to obtain low exhaust emission and a balance between the different pollutants. In the fully premixed reactivity controlled compression ignition strategy, the particles concentrations were dominated by nucleation mode; however, the increase in injection pressure and the advance of the diesel main injection timing provided a simultaneous reduction of nitrogen oxide and solid particles (accumulation mode). During the highly premixed reactivity controlled compression ignition strategy, the accumulation-mode particles increased, and their concentrations were higher when the diesel main injection timing advanced and injection pressure decreased, as well as there was a slight increase in nitrogen oxide emissions. Finally, in the dual-fuel diffusion strategy, the concentrations of accumulation-mode particles were higher and there was a considerable increase of these particles with the advance of the diesel main injection timing and the reduction of the injection pressure, while the nitrogen oxide emissions decreased.The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This investigation has been funded by VOLVO Group Trucks Technology. The authors also acknowledge the Spanish economy and competitiveness ministry for partially supporting this research (HiReCo TRA2014-58870-R).Bermúdez, V.; Macian Martinez, V.; Villalta-Lara, D.; Soto, L. (2020). Impact of injection settings on gaseous emissions and particle size distribution in the dual-mode dual-fuel concept. International Journal of Engine Research. 21(4):561-577. https://doi.org/10.1177/1468087419844413S561577214Oppenauer, K. S., & Alberer, D. (2013). 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Effect of premixing ratio, injection timing and compression ratio on nano particle emissions from dual fuel non-road compression ignition engine fueled with gasoline/methanol (port injection) and diesel (direct injection). Fuel, 203, 894-914. doi:10.1016/j.fuel.2017.05.015Agarwal, A. K., Gupta, T., & Kothari, A. (2011). Particulate emissions from biodiesel vs diesel fuelled compression ignition engine. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 15(6), 3278-3300. doi:10.1016/j.rser.2011.04.002Bonatesta, F., Chiappetta, E., & La Rocca, A. (2014). Part-load particulate matter from a GDI engine and the connection with combustion characteristics. Applied Energy, 124, 366-376. doi:10.1016/j.apenergy.2014.03.030Reijnders, J., Boot, M., & de Goey, P. (2018). Particle nucleation-accumulation mode trade-off: A second diesel dilemma? Journal of Aerosol Science, 124, 95-111. doi:10.1016/j.jaerosci.2018.06.013Überall, A., Otte, R., Eilts, P., & Krahl, J. (2015). A literature research about particle emissions from engines with direct gasoline injection and the potential to reduce these emissions. Fuel, 147, 203-207. doi:10.1016/j.fuel.2015.01.012Benajes, J. V., López, J. J., Novella, R., & García, A. (2008). ADVANCED METHODOLOGY FOR IMPROVING TESTING EFFICIENCY IN A SINGLE-CYLINDER RESEARCH DIESEL ENGINE. Experimental Techniques, 32(6), 41-47. doi:10.1111/j.1747-1567.2007.00296.xNazemi, M., & Shahbakhti, M. (2016). Modeling and analysis of fuel injection parameters for combustion and performance of an RCCI engine. Applied Energy, 165, 135-150. doi:10.1016/j.apenergy.2015.11.093Jain, A., Singh, A. P., & Agarwal, A. K. (2017). Effect of fuel injection parameters on combustion stability and emissions of a mineral diesel fueled partially premixed charge compression ignition (PCCI) engine. Applied Energy, 190, 658-669. doi:10.1016/j.apenergy.2016.12.164Brückner, C., Pandurangi, S. S., Kyrtatos, P., Bolla, M., Wright, Y. M., & Boulouchos, K. (2017). NOx emissions in direct injection diesel engines – part 1: Development of a phenomenological NOx model using experiments and three-dimensional computational fluid dynamics. International Journal of Engine Research, 19(3), 308-328. doi:10.1177/1468087417704312Desantes, J. M., Benajes, J., García, A., & Monsalve-Serrano, J. (2014). The role of the in-cylinder gas temperature and oxygen concentration over low load reactivity controlled compression ignition combustion efficiency. Energy, 78, 854-868. doi:10.1016/j.energy.2014.10.080Schneider, J., Hock, N., Weimer, S., Borrmann, S., Kirchner, U., Vogt, R., & Scheer, V. (2005). Nucleation Particles in Diesel Exhaust:  Composition Inferred from In Situ Mass Spectrometric Analysis. Environmental Science & Technology, 39(16), 6153-6161. doi:10.1021/es049427mZhang, Y., Ghandhi, J., & Rothamer, D. (2017). Comparisons of particle size distribution from conventional and advanced compression ignition combustion strategies. 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A feasibility study on using inkjet technology, micropumps, and MEMs as fuel injectors for bipropellant rocket engines

Control over drop size distributions, injection rates, and geometrical distribution of fuel and oxidizer sprays in bi-propellant rocket engines has the potential to produce more efficient, more stable, less polluting rocket engines. This control also offers the potential of an engine that can be throttled, working efficiently over a wide range of output thrusts. Inkjet printing technologies, MEMS fuel atomizers, and piezoelectric injectors similar in concept to those used in diesel engines are considered for their potential to yield a new, more active injection scheme for a rocket engine. Inkjets are found to be unable to pump at sufficient pressures, and have possibly dangerous failure modes. Active injection is found to be feasible if high pressure drop along the injector plate are used. A conceptual design is presented and its basic behavior assessed

Algorithm Development and Analysis for Advanced EngineTechnologies including Piezoelectric Fuel Injection and VariableValve Actuation

As vehicle emissions standards and fuel economy constraints become increasingly strict, the automotive industry must employ the use of advanced engine technologies to overcome these challenges. Fuel injection rate shaping and cylinder deactivation (CDA) are two such technologies, and both of them require the design and implementation of algorithms using various hardware and software tools. Fuel injection rate shaping is one path towards cleaner and more efficient diesel engines. Piezoelectrically-actuated fuel injectors are well-suited for rate shaping operation, but are difficult to control. Control-related challenges arise primarily due to the lack of measurements available in a fuel injection system on-engine, the inherent complexity in the dynamics of a piezoelectric fuel injector, and variability from injector-to-injector and over the life of a given injector. Although these challenges are significant, model-based fuel flow rate estimation and control is of the utmost importance due to the fact that the brake torque in a diesel engine is primarily influenced by the total amount of injected fuel per engine cycle. This thesis studies the effect of injector model parameter uncertainties on the model-based estimate of the injector\u27s output fuel flow rate. Specifically, the relationship between the injector\u27s needle seat area and needle lift is investigated. While off-engine experiments can be conducted to determine this parameter, this study presents an on-engine parameter estimation strategy that can accommodate for some of the aforementioned injector variability. In the presence of an initial parameter error of 25\%, the parameter estimator improved the model-based prediction of total injected fuel by approximately 10\% in Matlab simulations. CDA is another technology that enables improved fuel economy and reduced tailpipe emissions in diesel engines. As the name suggests, CDA involves deactivating some combination of an engine\u27s cylinders in order to temporarily reduce the total displacement of the engine. Reduced engine displacement can improve fuel economy and reduce harmful engine emissions (by means of reduced air-to-fuel ratio and reduced pumping work), especially at low engine speed and load conditions. However, there are a few challenges that CDA presents. First, engine lubricating oil can accumulate in deactivated cylinders as time progresses. Second, cylinders may not perform normally immediately upon reactivation (a concept referred to as first-fire readiness ) due to this oil accumulation as well as low in-cylinder temperatures that are the result of a prolonged deactivation. Third, changing the combination of firing cylinders can yield undesirable torsional vibrations during CDA operation. This thesis analyzes the first and second of these issues using in-cylinder pressure measurements to study combustion in cylinders that have been reactivated after prolonged periods of deactivation. Experiments show that as more time is spent in CDA mode, more oil accumulates in deactivated cylinders. This oil accumulation can be as much as 500 mg for cylinders that have been deactivated for 20 minutes. CDA durations of 5 and 10 minutes yield accumulated oil masses of up to 376 mg and 255 mg, respectively, while a CDA duration of 0.5 minutes yields an oil accumulation of less than 1 mg. Since the combustion of this accumulated oil causes abnormally large cumulative heat releases in the engine cycles following the transition from CDA to six cylinder mode, the brake torque does not smoothly transition between these two engine modes. For CDA times of 5, 10, and 20 minutes, these torque fluctuations make such long periods of CDA-only operation unacceptable from a first-fire readiness perspective. Finally, this thesis presents a basic cylinder recharging strategy that can be used in future work to mitigate the effect of oil accumulation and improve first-fire readiness. While improvements in piston ring design can prevent oil accumulation, this cylinder recharging strategy uses software to reactivate all deactivated cylinders for a single engine cycle at regular intervals in an effort to raise in-cylinder pressures enough to prevent oil from seeping into deactivated cylinders. The ability to perform these recharge events has been added to the engine test cell used in this study and has been validated experimentally. Although CDA-only operation is unacceptable for periods of time greater than or equal to 5 minutes, CDA operation with regularly-spaced recharge events could enable prolonged CDA operation by mitigating the effects of oil accumulation and first-fire readiness

Time-resolved fuel injector flow characterisation based on 3D laser Doppler vibrometry

In order to enable investigations of the fuel flow inside unmodified injectors, we have developed a new experimental approach to measure time-resolved vibration spectra of diesel nozzles using a three dimensional laser vibrometer. The technique we propose is based on the triangulation of the vibrometer and fuel pressure transducer signals, and enables the quantitative characterisation of quasi-cyclic internal flows without requiring modifications to the injector, the working fluid, or limiting the fuel injection pressure. The vibrometer, which uses the Doppler effect to measure the velocity of a vibrating object, was used to scan injector nozzle tips during the injection event. The data were processed using a discrete Fourier transform to provide time-resolved spectra for valve-closed-orifice, minisac and microsac nozzle geometries, and injection pressures ranging from 60 to 160MPa, hence offering unprecedented insight into cyclic cavitation and internal mechanical dynamic processes. A peak was consistently found in the spectrograms between 6 and 7.5kHz for all nozzles and injection pressures. Further evidence of a similar spectral peak was obtained from the fuel pressure transducer and a needle lift sensor mounted into the injector body. Evidence of propagation of the nozzle oscillations to the liquid sprays was obtained by recording high-speed videos of the near-nozzle diesel jet, and computing the fast Fourier transform for a number of pixel locations at the interface of the jets. This 6-7.5kHz frequency peak is proposed to be the natural frequency for the injector's main internal fuel line. Other spectral peaks were found between 35 and 45kHz for certain nozzle geometries, suggesting that these particular frequencies may be linked to nozzle dependent cavitation phenomena.Comment: 12 pages, 10 figure

Dynamics of Post-Injection Fuel Flow in Mini-Sac Diesel Injectors Part 1: Admission of 1 External Gases and Implications for Deposit Formation

Samples of unadditized, middle distillate diesel fuel were injected through real-size optically accessible mini-sac diesel injectors into ambient air at common rail pressures of 250 bar and 350 bar respectively. High-resolution images of white light scattered from the internal mini-sac and nozzle flow were captured on a high-speed monochrome video camera. Following the end of each injection, the momentum-driven evacuation of fuel liquid from the mini-sac and nozzle holes resulted in the formation of a vapour cloud and bubbles in the mini-sac, and vapour capsules in the nozzle holes. This permitted external gas to gain entrance to the nozzle holes. The diesel fuel in the mini-sac was observed to rotate with large initial vorticity, which decayed until the fuel became stationary. The diesel fuel remaining in the nozzle holes was observed to move inwards towards the mini-sac or outwards towards the nozzle exit in concert with the rotational flow in the mini-sac. The mini-sac bubbles’ internal pressure differences revealed that the bubbles must have contained previously dissolved oxygen and nitrogen. Under diesel engine operating conditions, this multi-phase mixture would be highly reactive and could initiate local pyrolysis and/or oxidation reactions. Finally, the dynamical behaviour of the diesel fuel in the nozzle holes would support the admission of external hot combustion gases into the nozzle holes, establishing the conditions for oxidation/pyrolysis reactions with surrounding liquid fuel films

Increasing exhaust temperature to enable after-treatment operation on a two-stage turbo-charged medium speed marine diesel engine

Nitrogen-oxides (NOx) are becoming more and more regulated. In heavy duty, medium speed engines these emission limits are also being reduced steadily: Selective catalytic reduction is a proven technology which allows to reduce NOx emission with very high efficiency. However, operating temperature of the catalytic converter has to be maintained within certain limits as conversion efficiency and ammonia slip are very heavily influenced by temperature. In this work the engine calibration and hardware will be modified to allow for a wide engine operating range with Selective catalytic reduction. The studied engine has 4MW nominal power and runs at 750rpm engine speed, fuel consumption during engine tests becomes quite expensive (+- 750kg/h) for a measurement campaign. This is why a simulation model was developed and validated. This model was then used to investigate several strategies to control engine out temperature: different types of wastegates, injection variation and valve timing adjustments. Simulation showed that wastegate application had the best tradeoff between fuel consumption and exhaust temperature. Finally, this configuration was built on the engine test bench and results from both measurements and simulation agreed very well

Meta-heuristic algorithms in car engine design: a literature survey

Meta-heuristic algorithms are often inspired by natural phenomena, including the evolution of species in Darwinian natural selection theory, ant behaviors in biology, flock behaviors of some birds, and annealing in metallurgy. Due to their great potential in solving difficult optimization problems, meta-heuristic algorithms have found their way into automobile engine design. There are different optimization problems arising in different areas of car engine management including calibration, control system, fault diagnosis, and modeling. In this paper we review the state-of-the-art applications of different meta-heuristic algorithms in engine management systems. The review covers a wide range of research, including the application of meta-heuristic algorithms in engine calibration, optimizing engine control systems, engine fault diagnosis, and optimizing different parts of engines and modeling. The meta-heuristic algorithms reviewed in this paper include evolutionary algorithms, evolution strategy, evolutionary programming, genetic programming, differential evolution, estimation of distribution algorithm, ant colony optimization, particle swarm optimization, memetic algorithms, and artificial immune system

Biotechnology in food properties and processing : series 1

The food biotechnology industry is continually adopting new and improved technologies for increasing processing efficiency, improving existing products, producing new products and reducing environmental effects. This book introduces to a range of technologies and improved methods including some which have already been adopted by the industry, some which are beginning to be used, and others which are being researched and developed but not yet adopted commercially. It also provides a significant component relating to food technology. The food product development process applies knowledge and skills developed through study of a range of areas, including nutrition, food properties and food manufacture, are also presented in this book