Evaluation of Multi-Frequency SAR Images for Tropical Land Cover Mapping

Earth Observation (EO) data plays a major role in supporting surveying compliance of several multilateral environmental treaties, such as UN-REDD+ (United Nations Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation). In this context, land cover maps of remote sensing data are the most commonly used EO products and development of adequate classification strategies is an ongoing research topic. However, the availability of meaningful multispectral data sets can be limited due to cloud cover, particularly in the tropics. In such regions, the use of SAR systems (Synthetic Aperture Radar), which are nearly independent form weather conditions, is particularly promising. With an ever-growing number of SAR satellites, as well as the increasing accessibility of SAR data, potentials for multi-frequency remote sensing are becoming numerous. In our study, we evaluate the synergistic contribution of multitemporal L-, C-, and X-band data to tropical land cover mapping. We compare classification outcomes of ALOS-2, RADARSAT-2, and TerraSAR-X datasets for a study site in the Brazilian Amazon using a wrapper approach. After preprocessing and calculation of GLCM texture (Grey Level Co-Occurence), the wrapper utilizes Random Forest classifications to estimate scene importance. Comparing the contribution of different wavelengths, ALOS-2 data perform best in terms of overall classification accuracy, while the classification of TerraSAR-X data yields higher accuracies when compared to the results achieved by RADARSAT-2. Moreover, the wrapper underlines potentials of multi-frequency classification as integration of multi-frequency images is always preferred over multi-temporal, mono-frequent composites. We conclude that, despite distinct advantages of certain sensors, for land cover classification, multi- sensoral integration is beneficial

Deep Learning Solutions for TanDEM-X-based Forest Classification

In the last few years, deep learning (DL) has been successfully and massively employed in computer vision for discriminative tasks, such as image classification or object detection. This kind of problems are core to many remote sensing (RS) applications as well, though with domain-specific peculiarities. Therefore, there is a growing interest on the use of DL methods for RS tasks. Here, we consider the forest/non-forest classification problem with TanDEM-X data, and test two state-of-the-art DL models, suitably adapting them to the specific task. Our experiments confirm the great potential of DL methods for RS applications

ANALYSIS OF THE TARGET DECOMPOSITION TECHNIQUE ATTRIBUTES AND POLARIMETRIC RATIOS TO DISCRIMINATE LAND USE AND LAND COVER CLASSES OF THE TAPAJÓS REGION

This study aims to analyze the capability of the target decomposition techniques and the polarimetric ratios applied to the ALOS/PALSAR-2 satellite polarimetric images to discriminate the land use and land cover classes in the Tapajós National Forest region, Pará State. Three full polarimetric ALOS/PALSAR-2, level 1 single look complex scenes were selected to generate the coherence and the covariance matrices to derive the Cloude-Pottier and the Freeman-Durden target decomposition attributes. From the radiometrically calibrated PALSAR-2 images, we generated the backscatter coefficients, the cross polarized ratio (RC; HV/HH), the parallel polarized ratio (RP; VV/HH) and the Radar Forest Degradation Index (RFDI). The images resulting from these polarimetric attributes were processed by the Maximum Likelihood (MAXVER) classifier coupled with the Iterated Conditional Modes (ICM) contextual algorithm. We found that the classifications derived from the target decomposition attributes, mainly from the CloudePottier technique, with a Kappa index of 0.75, presented a significant higher performance than those derived from the RC ratio, RP ratio, and RFDI

Utilização de imagens SAR na classificação de formações florestais brasileiras

Brazil has a large territorial area with a large cover of vegetation and several forest typologies with different physiognomies. It is necessary to map the forest areas in the country in order to know the spatial distribution and the dynamics of each forest formation. An efficient and reliable way to obtain this information is using remote sensing techniques, and radar – SAR - imaging can be applied, which in turn has been the focus of many researchers. Thus, the objective of the present study is to gather scientific productions related to the use of radar images applied to the mapping of different forests in Brazil, analyzing the most recent approaches and classification techniques. There was a significant application of SAR images in forests of the Amazon biome, mainly for the detection of deforestation. The images of the ALOS/PALSAR L-band radar system were the most used in the mapping of forest typologies, associated to several classifier algorithms, such as: Iterated Conditional Modes, Maximum Likelihood and random forest. The data types worked in the classifications varied according to the polarimetric capacity of each image, with emphasis on the greater use of backscattering coefficients and attributes extracted from matrix decompositions. It was also observed that most studies related SAR data to those obtained by optical sensors. Therefore, the present study made it possible to gather several applications of classification techniques for the discrimination of forest formations in Brazil using microwave imaging, indicating the potentiality of the various classifiers with SAR images, and showing that radar systems are an important technology that is being used for mapping forests in the country.O Brasil tem uma vasta área territorial com várias tipologias florestais compostas por diferentes fisionomias. É necessário o mapeamento das áreas de florestas no país, com o intuito de se conhecer sua distribuição espacial, bem como de avaliar sua dinâmica de expansão ou redução. Uma forma eficiente e confiável de se obter tais informações se dá por meio de técnicas de sensoriamento remoto, podendo ser aplicado o imageamento por radar (micro-ondas), que por sua vez tem sido o foco de muitos pesquisadores. Sendo assim, o objetivo do presente estudo é reunir as produções científicas relacionadas à utilização de imagens de radar aplicadas ao mapeamento das diferentes florestas no Brasil, analisando as mais recentes abordagens e técnicas de classificação. Notou-se uma significativa aplicação de imagens SAR em florestas do bioma Amazônia, principalmente para a detecção do desmatamento. As imagens do sistema do radar de banda L do ALOS/PALSAR foram as mais utilizadas nos mapeamentos das tipologias florestais, associadas a vários algoritmos classificadores, tais como: Iterated Conditional Modes, Máxima Verossimilhança e random forest. Os tipos de dados trabalhados nas classificações variaram de acordo com a capacidade polarimétrica de cada imagem, com destaque à maior utilização dos coeficientes de retroespalhamento e atributos extraídos das decomposições de suas matrizes. Observou-se ainda que a maioria dos trabalhos relacionaram os dados SAR com os obtidos por sensores ópticos. Portanto, o presente estudo possibilitou reunir várias aplicações de técnicas de classificação para a discriminação de diferentes formações florestais no Brasil utilizando o imageamento por micro-ondas, indicando a potencialidade dos vários classificadores nos dados SAR, mostrando que os sistemas de radar são uma importante tecnologia utilizada para o mapeamento de florestas no país

Mapping Secondary Vegetation of a Region of Deforestation Hotspot in the Brazilian Amazon: Performance Analysis of C- and L-Band SAR Data Acquired in the Rainy Season.

Abstract: The re-suppression of secondary vegetation (SV) in the Brazilian Amazon for agriculture or land speculation occurs mostly in the rainy season. The use of optical images to monitor such re-suppression during the rainy season is limited because of the persistent cloud cover. This study aimed to evaluate the potential of C- and L-band SAR data acquired in the rainy season to dis- criminate SV in an area of new hotspot of deforestation in the municipality of Colniza, northwest- ern of Mato Grosso State, Brazil. This is the first time that the potential of dual-frequency SAR data was analyzed to discriminate SV, with an emphasis on data acquired during the rainy season. The L-band ALOS/PALSAR-2 and the C-band Sentinel-1 data acquired in March 2018 were processed to obtain backscattering coefficients and nine textural attributes were derived from the gray level co-occurrence matrix method (GLCM). Then, we classified the images based on the non-parametric Random Forest (RF) and Support Vector Machine (SVM) algorithms. The use of SAR textural attributes improved the discrimination capability of different LULC classes found in the study area. The results showed the best performance of ALOS/PALSAR-2 data classified by the RF algo- rithm to discriminate the following representative land use and land cover classes of the study area: primary forest, secondary forest, shrubby pasture, clean pasture, and bare soil, with an over- all accuracy and Kappa coefficient of 84% and 0.78, respectively. The RF outperformed the SVM classifier to discriminate these five LULC classes in 14% of overall accuracy for both ALOS-2 and Sentinel-1 data sets. This study also showed that the textural attributes derived from the GLCM method are highly sensitive to the moving window size to be applied to the GLCM method. The results of this study can assist the future development of an operation system based on du- al-frequency SAR data to monitor re-suppression of SV in the Brazilian Amazon or in other tropical rainforests

Estado da Arte do Sensoriamento Remoto de Radar: Fundamentos, Sensores, Processamento de Imagens e Aplicações.

Este artigo aborda o estado da arte do sensoriamento remoto por radar e foi elaborado para fazer parte da edição especial de comemoração dos 50 anos desta revista. Neste estudo, é apresentada uma breve introdução sobre os fundamentos do sensoriamento remoto por radar, com destaque para os parâmetros mais importantes de imageamento e da superfície terrestre envolvidos no processo de obtenção de imagens de radar. Ênfase é dada para o comprimento de onda, polarização das ondas eletromagnéticas e geometria de obtenção de imagens (parâmetros de imageamento) e para a umidade de solos e da vegetação, rugosidade do terreno e estrutura da vegetação (parâmetros da superfície terrestre). Em seguida, são apresentados os principais sensores orbitais de radar de abertura sintética que estão atualmente em operação e os principais processamentos digitais de imagens de radar, destacando-se a conversão dos valores digitais para coeficientes de retroespalhamento, os filtros espaciais para redução do ruído speckle, as técnicas de decomposição de imagens e o processamento InSAR. Finalmente, é apresentada uma breve discussão sobre algumas aplicações potenciais, com especial atenção para o monitoramento de derrame de óleo em plataformas continentais, estimativa de biomassa aérea, monitoramento de desmatamento em coberturas florestais tropicais, detecção de áreas de plantio de arroz irrigado e estimativa de umidade de solos

Worldwide Research on Land Use and Land Cover in the Amazon Region

Land cover is an important descriptor of the earth’s terrestrial surface. It is also crucial to determine the biophysical processes in global environmental change. Land-use change showcases the management of the land while revealing what motivated the alteration of the land cover. The type of land use can represent local economic and social benefits, framed towards regional sustainable development. The Amazon stands out for being the largest tropical forest globally, with the most extraordinary biodiversity, and plays an essential role in climate regulation. The present work proposes to carry out a bibliometric analysis of 1590 articles indexed in the Scopus database. It uses both Microsoft Excel and VOSviewer software for the evaluation of author keywords, authors, and countries. The method encompasses (i) search criteria, (ii) search and document compilation, (iii) software selection and data extraction, and (iv) data analysis. The results classify the main research fields into nine main topics with increasing relevance: ‘Amazon’, ‘deforestation’, ‘remote sensing’, ‘land use and land cover change’, and ‘land use’. In conclusion, the cocitation authors’ network reveals the development of such areas and the interest they present due to their worldwide importance

Mapping a Brazilian deforestation frontier using multi-temporal TerraSAR-X data and supervised machine learning

Satellite remote sensing enables a repeated survey of the earth’s surface. With machine learning it is possible to recognize complex patterns from extensive data sets. Using methods from machine learning, remote sensing images are utilized to derive large scale land use and land cover (LULC) maps, carrying discrete information on the human management of land and intact primary forests, as well as change processes. Such information is particularly relevant in little developed regions, and areas which are undergoing transformation. Therefore, satellite remote sensing is generally the preferred method for generating LULC products within tropical regions, and particularly useful to assist tracking of change processes with regard to deforestation or land management. The Amazon is the largest area of continuous tropical forest in the world, and of substantial importance with regard to biodiversity, its influence on global climate, as well as providing living space for a large number of indigenous tribes. As tropical region, the Amazon is particularly affected by cloudy conditions, which pose a serious challenge to many remote sensing efforts. Utilization of Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) hence is promoted, as this warrants data availability at fixed intervals. Performing land cover mapping at the deforestation frontier in the Brazilian states of Pará and Mato Grosso, the aim of this thesis is to evaluate latest concepts from machine learning and SAR remote sensing in the light of real world applicability. As a cumulative effort, this thesis provides a scalable method based on Markov Random Fields, to increase classification performance. This method is especially useful to enhance the outcome of SAR classifications, as it directly addresses inherent SAR properties such as multi-temporality and speckle. Furthermore, ALOS-2, RADARSAT-2, and TerraSAR-X, which are current SAR sensors fulfilling different properties with regard to ground resolution and wavelength, are being investigated concerning their synergetic potentials for the mapping of vegetated LULC classes of the Brazilian Amazon. Here, the additional value of combining multiple frequencies is evaluated using reliable validation techniques based on area adjustment. Additionally, single performance of the three sensors is evaluated and their potentials concerning the task of tropical mapping are estimated. Lastly, different potentials of TanDEM-X for the purpose of tropical mapping are investigated. TanDEM-X is the first continuous spaceborne missionvi to offer a bi-static acquisition of data, enabling the generation of height models and the collection of coherence layers via a single pass

Spaceborne L-Band Synthetic Aperture Radar Data for Geoscientific Analyses in Coastal Land Applications: A Review

The coastal zone offers among the world’s most productive and valuable ecosystems and is experiencing increasing pressure from anthropogenic impacts: human settlements, agriculture, aquaculture, trade, industrial activities, oil and gas exploitation and tourism. Earth observation has great capability to deliver valuable data at the local, regional and global scales and can support the assessment and monitoring of land‐ and water‐related applications in coastal zones. Compared to optical satellites, cloud‐cover does not limit the timeliness of data acquisition with spaceborne Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) sensors, which have all‐weather, day and night capabilities. Hence, active radar systems demonstrate great potential for continuous mapping and monitoring of coastal regions, particularly in cloud‐prone tropical and sub‐tropical climates. The canopy penetration capability with long radar wavelength enables L‐band SAR data to be used for coastal terrestrial environments and has been widely applied and investigated for the following geoscientific topics: mapping and monitoring of flooded vegetation and inundated areas; the retrieval of aboveground biomass; and the estimation of soil moisture. Human activities, global population growth, urban sprawl and climate change‐induced impacts are leading to increased pressure on coastal ecosystems causing land degradation, deforestation and land use change. This review presents a comprehensive overview of existing research articles that apply spaceborne L‐band SAR data for geoscientific analyses that are relevant for coastal land applications