Bilingualism/Multilingualism to Protect Against Cognitive Decline in Alzheimer’s Disease and Other Forms of Dementia: A Systematic Review

Given a growing incidence of Alzheimer’s disease and lack of treatments, prevention is a popular topic in both research literature (Angevaren et al., 2008; Orrell & Sahakian, 1995) and in news articles (Iacono et al., 2009). A cognitive reserve is a skill that improves cognitive functioning in executive controls. Bilingualism is believed to be a practice that increases cognitive reserve, which could delay the onset of Alzheimer’s disease. The purpose of this project was to analyze the possibility that bilingualism or multilingualism could create a cognitive reserve to delay the onset of Alzheimer’s disease and other dementia-related diseases. This systematic review asks the question: Can bilingualism and multilingualism function as a protective mechanism and create a cognitive reserve to delay the onset and progression of Alzheimer’s disease and other dementia-related diseases? The PRISMA approach was used and evidence was gathered from the databases of PubMed and Web of Science. Evidence was screened for inclusion and appraised for quality by following similar criteria to the study from Mukadam and collegues (2017). The results of the studies were summarized through tables and comparisons. Neural reserve and cognitive reserve studies investigating both structural and behavioral differences found greater statistical differences for bilinguals and multilinguals, showing a potential benefit of language usage towards preventing Alzheimer’s disease and other dementia-related disease. Studies only investigating cognitive reserve did not find as overwhelming evidence for multiple language use to delay such diseases. I hope to clarify the debatable role of multiple languages to create a cognitive reserve that may delay Alzheimer’s disease and other forms of dementia

Associations of multilingualism and language proficiency with cognitive functioning: epidemiological evidence from the SwissDEM study in community dwelling older adults and long-term care residents

BACKGROUND We explored whether number of languages spoken and language proficiency are associated with cognitive performance among older adults living in the community and in long-term care (LTC) in Switzerland. METHODS Among study participants, 664 lived in the community in the Canton of Zurich (Mean age = 72.97 years; SD = 6.08), 386 lived in the community in Ticino (Mean age = 76.24 years; SD = 6.66), and 176 resided in LTC in Ticino (Mean age = 87.61 years; SD = 6.45). We recorded sociodemographic variables, number of languages spoken, language proficiency, and assessed overall cognitive performance, immediate and delayed memory, and verbal fluency with standardized tests. We used adjusted regression models. RESULTS A higher number of spoken languages was positively associated with overall cognitive performance, verbal fluency and immediate and delayed memory performance in community-dwelling older adults in the Cantons of Ticino and Zurich, (all p values ≤ 0.012;), but not in in older adults living in LTC homes (all p values ≥ 0.35). Higher language proficiency was associated with better memory performance among individuals living in the community in Ticino (p value = 0.003), and to better performance in verbal fluency and memory tasks in Zurich (p values ≤ 0.002). Among LTC residents, proficiency levels were not associated with cognitive performance. CONCLUSIONS Multilingualism and greater language proficiency were associated with better cognitive functioning in community-dwelling but not in institutionalized older adults. Multilingualism may contribute to cognitive reserve, as well as protect and delay cognitive decline in late life

LANGUAGE PROFICIENCY OF A BILINGUAL CHILD: A CASE STUDY

In this study, it is aimed to analyse, evaluate and define the Turkish and English communication skills and vocabulary levels of a bilingual Turkish child. According to Houwer (2007), although they are grown in a bilingual environment, in some cases, the process of acquiring two languages is not successful. It is quite interesting why the language skills of children who grew up in similar environments in a natural process such as language acquisition sometimes differ, and why some children are not bilingual while others are. In this study, communication skills in both languages of a child who grew up in a bilingual home environment and successfully learned both Turkish and English, were examined and receptive language levels in both languages were defined. Within the scope of the research, the language development process and the vocabulary levels in the two languages are assumed to be in the normal development characteristics of the individual and similar qualities with his peers. The child lives in Turkey in a big city. This study sought to answer the following questions: 1. How is the productive language level of the individual who grew up bilingual? a) How is the child's productive language ability in English? b) How is the child's productive language ability in Turkish? 2. How is the receptive language level of the individual who grew up bilingual? a) How is the English receptive language level? b) How is the Turkish receptive language level? Article visualizations

Redefining bilingualism as a spectrum of experiences that differentially affect brain structure and function

Learning and using an additional language is shown to have an impact on the structure and function of the brain, including in regions involved in cognitive control and the connections between them. However, the available evidence remains variable in terms of the localization, extent and trajectory of these effects. Variability likely stems from the fact that bilingualism has been routinely operationalized as a categorical variable (bilingual/monolingual), whereas it is a complex and dynamic experience with a number of potentially deterministic factors affecting neural plasticity. Here we present the first study investigating the combined effects of experience-based factors (EBFs) in bilingual language use on brain structure and functional connectivity. EBFs include an array of measures of everyday usage of a second language in different types of immersive settings (e.g., amount of use in social settings). Analyses reveal specific adaptations in the brain, both structural and functional, correlated to individual EBFs and their combined effects. Taken together the data show that the brain adapts to be maximally efficient in the processing and control of two languages, although modulated ultimately by individual language experience

Degree of multilingual engagement modulates resting state oscillatory activity across the lifespan

Multilingualism has been demonstrated to lead to a more favorable trajectory of neurocognitive aging, yet our understanding of its effect on neurocognition across the lifespan remains limited. We collected resting state EEG recordings from a sample of multilingual individuals across a wide age range. Additionally, we obtained data on participant multilingual language use patterns alongside other known lifestyle enrichment factors. Language experience was operationalized via a modified multilingual diversity (MLD) score. Generalized additive modeling was employed to examine the effects and interactions of age and MLD on resting state oscillatory power and coherence. The data suggest an independent modulatory effect of individualized multilingual engagement on age-related differences in whole brain resting state power across alpha and theta bands, and an interaction between age and MLD on resting state coherence in alpha, theta, and low beta. These results provide evidence of multilingual engagement as an independent correlational factor related to differences in resting state EEG power, consistent with the claim that multilingualism can serve as a protective factor in neurocognitive aging

Understanding structural plasticity in the bilingual brain: The Dynamic Restructuring Model

Research on the effects of bi-/multilingualism on brain structure has so far yielded variable patterns. Although it cannot be disputed that learning and using additional languages restructures grey (cortical, subcortical and cerebellar) and white matter in the brain, both increases and reductions in regional volume and diffusivity have been reported. This paper revisits the available evidence from simultaneous and sequential bilinguals, multilinguals, interpreters, bimodal bilinguals, children, patients and healthy older adults from the perspective of experience-based neuroplasticity. The Dynamic Restructuring Model (DRM) is then presented, a three-stage model accounting for, and reinterpreting, all the available evidence by proposing a time-course for the reported structural adaptations, and by suggesting that these adaptations are dynamic and depend on the quantity and quality of the language learning and switching experience. This is followed by suggestions for future directions for the emerging field of bilingualism-induced neuroplasticit

Moduladores da vantagem bilíngue nainibição, atenção e tarefas de mudança

Objective. Review the scientific literature to examine the differences on behavioral results in executive-function assessments for bilingual and monolingual. Method. It began with a bibliographic search using bilingualism and executive functions and/or attention as keywords; 36 papers fulfi lled the inclusion criteria. These results were divided according to the age group studied in children, young adults and older adults. Results. The main factors that contributed to the behavioral results on bilingual populations were the age of acquisition and the context of use of the second language. Different patterns emerged for the three age groups. Conclusion. Better executive performance was linked to the speaker’s natural and useful context of acquisition, and earlier start. Although it presents itself as a methodological problem, the study of bilingualism is important for both school and health-related programs.Objetivo. Revisar la literatura para identificar si existen diferencias en el desempeño ejecutivo de la atención, inhibición y tareas de cambio entre personas bilingües y monolingües. Método. Se realizó una búsqueda bibliográfica utilizando las palabras clave: bilingüismo, funciones ejecutivas y atención; 36 artículos cumplieron los criterios de inclusión. Estos se dividieron en tres grupos, según la edad de las muestras estudiadas en niños, adultos jóvenes y adultos mayores. Resultados. Los factores principales que modelaron los resultados comportamentales fueron la edad de adquisición y el contexto de uso del segundo idioma. Además, se encontraron diferentes perfiles de desempeño en las tareas de funciones ejecutivas, según el grupo etario. Conclusión. Los mejores desempeños ejecutivos se observaron en aquellas personas bilingües que adquirieron su segundo idioma en contextos naturales, de uso frecuente para el hablante y a edades tempranas. Estos aportes son importantes para el ámbito escolar y de salud.Escopo . Revisar a literatura para identifi car às diferencias no desempenho executivo das tarefas de atenção, inibição e mudança entre populações de bilíngues e monolíngues. Metodologia . Foi feita uma procura bibliográfi ca usando as palavras chave: bilinguismo, funções executivas e/ou atenção; 36 artigos cumpriram os critérios de inclusão. Estes estivam divididos em três grupos, segundo a idade das amostras estudadas, em crianças, adultos jovens e adultos maiores. Resultados . Os fatores principais que modelaram os resultados comportamentais foram a idade de aquisição e o contexto de uso do segundo idioma. Além, foram achados diferentes perfi s de desempenho nas tarefas de funções executivas, segundo o grupo etário. Conclusão . Os melhores desempenhos executivos foram observados em aquelas pessoas bilíngues que adquiriram seu segundo idioma em contextos naturais, de uso frequente para o falante, e em idades precoces. Estes aportes são importantes para o âmbito escolar e de saúde

Moduladores da vantagem bilíngue na inibição, atenção e tarefas de mudança

Objetivo. Revisar la literatura para identificar si existen diferencias en el desempeño ejecutivo de la atención, inhibición y tareas de cambio entre personas bilingües y monolingües. Método. Se realizó una búsqueda bibliográfica utilizando las palabras clave: bilingüismo, funciones ejecutivas y atención; 36 artículos cumplieron los criterios de inclusión. Estos se dividieron en tres grupos, según la edad de las muestras estudiadas en niños, adultos jóvenes y adultos mayores. Resultados. Los factores principales que modelaron los resultados comportamentales fueron la edad de adquisición y el contexto de uso del segundo idioma. Además, se encontraron diferentes perfiles de desempeño en las tareas de funciones ejecutivas, según el grupo etario. Conclusión. Los mejores desempeños ejecutivos se observaron en aquellas personas bilingües que adquirieron su segundo idioma en contextos naturales, de uso frecuente para el hablante y a edades tempranas. Estos aportes son importantes para el ámbito escolar y de salud.Objective. Review the scientific literature to examine the differences on behavioral results in executive-function assessments for bilingual and monolingual. Method. It began with a bibliographic search using bilingualism and executive functions and/or attention as keywords; 36 papers fulfi lled the inclusion criteria. These results were divided according to the age group studied in children, young adults and older adults. Results. The main factors that contributed to the behavioral results on bilingual populations were the age of acquisition and the context of use of the second language. Different patterns emerged for the three age groups. Conclusion. Better executive performance was linked to the speaker’s natural and useful context of acquisition, and earlier start. Although it presents itself as a methodological problem, the study of bilingualism is important for both school and health-related programs.Escopo. Revisar a literatura para identifi car às diferencias no desempenho executivo das tarefas de atenção, inibição e mudança entre populações de bilíngues e monolíngues. Metodologia. Foi feita uma procura bibliográfi ca usando as palavras chave: bilinguismo, funções executivas e/ou atenção; 36 artigos cumpriram os critérios de inclusão. Estes estivam divididos em três grupos, segundo a idade das amostras estudadas, em crianças, adultos jovens e adultos maiores. Resultados. Os fatores principais que modelaram os resultados comportamentais foram a idade de aquisição e o contexto de uso do segundo idioma. Além, foram achados diferentes perfi s de desempenho nas tarefas de funções executivas, segundo o grupo etário. Conclusão . Os melhores desempenhos executivos foram observados em aquelas pessoas bilíngues que adquiriram seu segundo idioma em contextos naturais, de uso frequente para o falante, e em idades precoces. Estes aportes são importantes para o âmbito escolar e de saúde.Fil: Sarli, Leticia Ileana. Universidad Nacional de San Martin. Escuela de Ciencia y Tecnologia. Centro de Estudios Multidisciplinarios En Sistemas Complejos y Ciencias del Cerebro.; Argentina. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas; ArgentinaFil: Justel, Nadia. Universidad Nacional de San Martin. Escuela de Ciencia y Tecnologia. Centro de Estudios Multidisciplinarios En Sistemas Complejos y Ciencias del Cerebro.; Argentina. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas; Argentin

Effect of the number of hours devoted to teaching in English on the results in scientific competence

The knowledge of different languages allows the access to new cultures. To do this, from an early age it is intended that students learn a foreign language in addition to their native idiom, for this purpose many educational centers have introduced a foreign language (normally english) in a vehicular form of the teaching-learning processes. This research aims to study the effect of the number of teaching hours in English, in a context of trilingual teaching, in the science performance. To achieve this, we carried out a secondary analysis (longitudinal, predictive and non-experimental design) with nested data (time, student and classroom) obtained in the assessment of a trilingual program (English, Spanish and Basque) applied in different educational centers of the Basque Country. The sample is made up of 2441 (47% women y 53% mens) Primary Education students (PE) belonging to 71 schools. We performed a longitudinal and multilevel regression analysis (time, student and classroom) using the linear mixed models’ technique. We used as a dependent variable three measures of achievement in science at the end of the academic years 2010-2011 (4th grade of primary school), 2011-2012 (5th grade of primary school) and 2012-2013 (6th grade of primary school). We used as a predictive variable percentage of hours taught in English. The difference in the percentage of hours taught in Spanish and Basque was introduced as a covariate to control the effect of the teaching time in the other two languages. The results show that the increase in teaching time in English has a positive effect on science achievement. Therefore, it is recommended that educational institutions use English not only as a subject but as a learning tool.El dominio de distintas lenguas permite la apertura a nuevas culturas, por ello desde edades tempranas se pretende que los estudiantes además de dominar su lengua nativa sepan comunicarse en al menos otro lenguaje, con este fin muchas escuelas utilizan como idioma vehicular de los procesos de enseñanza, una lengua diferente a la oficial o cooficial (generalmente el inglés). Partiendo de dicha premisa el objetivo en esta investigación es analizar, en un contexto trilingüe, el efecto del número de horas de enseñanza impartidas en inglés en la competencia científica. Para ello se realiza un análisis secundario (diseño no experimental, predictivo y longitudinal) con datos anidados (tiempo, estudiante y aula) obtenidos en la evaluación de un programa trilingüe (castellano, euskera e inglés) aplicado en distintos centros educativos del País Vasco. La muestra es incidental y está compuesta por 2441 estudiantes (47% mujeres y 53% varones) de educación primaria (segundo y tercer ciclo) pertenecientes a 71 escuelas. Se realiza un análisis de regresión longitudinal y multinivel empleando la técnica de modelos lineales mixtos. Como variable dependiente se utilizan las tres mediciones realizadas sobre la competencia científica, a finales de los cursos académicos 4º de primaria, 5º de primaria y 6º de primaria y como predictor el porcentaje de horas impartido en inglés. Asimismo, la diferencia entre el porcentaje de horas impartido en castellano y en euskera se emplea como covariable, con el fin de controlar el efecto del tiempo impartido en la lengua oficial y cooficial. Los resultados revelan que a mayor tiempo de enseñanza en inglés mejores son los niveles de logro. Por tanto, se concluye que existe un efecto positivo de la lengua inglesa en la competencia científica y se recomienda a las instituciones educativas utilizar el inglés no únicamente como una asignatura, sino también como una lengua de enseñanza