Automated Bone Age Assessment: Motivation, Taxonomies, and Challenges

Bone age assessment (BAA) of unknown people is one of the most important topics in clinical procedure for evaluation of biological maturity of children. BAA is performed usually by comparing an X-ray of left hand wrist with an atlas of known sample bones. Recently, BAA has gained remarkable ground from academia and medicine. Manual methods of BAA are time-consuming and prone to observer variability. This is a motivation for developing automated methods of BAA. However, there is considerable research on the automated assessment, much of which are still in the experimental stage. This survey provides taxonomy of automated BAA approaches and discusses the challenges. Finally, we present suggestions for future research

Predictive Modelling of Bone Ageing

Bone age assessment (BAA) is a task performed daily by paediatricians in hospitalsworldwide. The main reasons for BAA to be performed are: fi�rstly, diagnosis of growth disorders through monitoring skeletal development; secondly, prediction of final adult height; and fi�nally, verifi�cation of age claims. Manually predicting bone age from radiographs is a di�fficult and time consuming task. This thesis investigates bone age assessment and why automating the process will help. A review of previous automated bone age assessment systems is undertaken and we investigate why none of these systems have gained widespread acceptance. We propose a new automated method for bone age assessment, ASMA (Automated Skeletal Maturity Assessment). The basic premise of the approach is to automatically extract descriptive shape features that capture the human expertise in forming bone age estimates. The algorithm consists of the following six modularised stages: hand segmentation; hand segmentation classifi�cation; bone segmentation; feature extraction; bone segmentation classifi�cation; bone age prediction. We demonstrate that ASMA performs at least as well as other automated systems and that models constructed on just three bones are as accurate at predicting age as expert human assessors using the standard technique. We also investigate the importance of ethnicity and gender in skeletal development. Our conclusion is that the feature based system of separating the image processing from the age modelling is the best approach, since it off�ers flexibility and transparency, and produces accurate estimates

A Survey on Artificial Intelligence Techniques for Biomedical Image Analysis in Skeleton-Based Forensic Human Identification

This paper represents the first survey on the application of AI techniques for the analysis of biomedical images with forensic human identification purposes. Human identification is of great relevance in today’s society and, in particular, in medico-legal contexts. As consequence, all technological advances that are introduced in this field can contribute to the increasing necessity for accurate and robust tools that allow for establishing and verifying human identity. We first describe the importance and applicability of forensic anthropology in many identification scenarios. Later, we present the main trends related to the application of computer vision, machine learning and soft computing techniques to the estimation of the biological profile, the identification through comparative radiography and craniofacial superimposition, traumatism and pathology analysis, as well as facial reconstruction. The potentialities and limitations of the employed approaches are described, and we conclude with a discussion about methodological issues and future research.Spanish Ministry of Science, Innovation and UniversitiesEuropean Union (EU) PGC2018-101216-B-I00Regional Government of Andalusia under grant EXAISFI P18-FR-4262Instituto de Salud Carlos IIIEuropean Union (EU) DTS18/00136European Commission H2020-MSCA-IF-2016 through the Skeleton-ID Marie Curie Individual Fellowship 746592Spanish Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities-CDTI, Neotec program 2019 EXP-00122609/SNEO-20191236European Union (EU)Xunta de Galicia ED431G 2019/01European Union (EU) RTI2018-095894-B-I0

Morphological properties of articular chondrocytes in various experimental and clinical conditions

Previous work has suggested that there exists a relationship between chondrocyte morphology and matrix metabolism. Changes to chondrocyte morphology have been reported in human cartilage however it is unclear if these are involved in the degenerative process associated with osteoarthritis (OA). In this work, the morphology of human and bovine chondrocytes has been characterised under a range of conditions. Bovine chondrocytes have been utilised in these experiments as bovine cartilage is non-degenerate and the chondrocytes have ‘normal’ morphology. However, if human cartilage have been used instead then there is possibility of having chondrocytes of mixed shapes i.e. both ‘normal’ and ‘abnormal’ cells. The thesis aimed at experimentally inducing morphological changes to chondrocytes to determine whether these changes resemble those observed in human cartilage. The ultimate aim is to model these changes to clarify the link between morphology and matrix metabolism by determining how morphological changes influence matrix metabolism. A classification system was developed for chondrocyte morphology allowing the quantification of chondrocyte shapes under different conditions permitting statistical comparisons. The different conditions utilised were (1) non-degenerate and mildly-degenerate human articular cartilage and (2) two in vitro models (a) weak 3D agarose gels to study the effect of gel strength and increasing concentrations of foetal calf serum (FCS) on morphology of bovine chondrocytes and (b) scalpel induced mechanically-injured bovine cartilage model to study in situ chondrocyte viability and morphology at the injured site in various culture conditions. Additionally, the effect of raised medium osmolarity on the response of chondrocytes to injury was studied to determine if the abnormal morphology could be reversed. Using fluorescence-mode confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM), chondrocyte viability, volume and morphology were determined and quantified by using VolocityTM 3D image analysis software. Histological evaluation of matrix by using Haematoxylin and eosin, Alcian blue and Masson’s trichrome staining of matrix produced by chondrocytes cultured in strong or weak agarose gels and in injured cartilage was determined. Additionally, immunohistochemical evaluation of matrix (collagen Types I & II) produced by chondrocytes was also performed. Results demonstrated that in non-degenerate human femoral head cartilage, ~83% chondrocytes were normal in morphology and 17±2% chondrocytes had cytoplasmic processes as compared to mildly-degenerate cartilage where 35±5% abnormal chondrocytes with cytoplasmic processes were present. In non-degenerate cartilage, 11±3% chondrocytes formed small sized clusters however clustering was quite evident in the superficial zone of mildly-degenerate human femoral head cartilage where 43±16% chondrocytes had formed large clusters. In mildly-degenerate cartilage the number of abnormal chondrocytes with processes, length of processes and number of processes per cell were greater in the superficial as compared to mid and deep zones. A model was developed to study the effect of external supporting agarose gel on chondrocyte morphology and also to determine the influence of FCS. Bovine chondrocytes cultured in weak gels after 7 days developed similar morphological changes as those observed in degenerate human cartilage. However, in the strong gels only few chondrocytes with morphological changes were present i.e. similar to non-degenerate cartilage. These morphological changes (development of clusters and processes) occurred more rapidly with increasing concentrations of FCS. Histology revealed less Alcian blue staining intensity around chondrocytes cultured in weak gels as compared to strong gels suggesting altered matrix produced by abnormal chondrocytes. FCS and gel strength were therefore proposed as related factors in regulating chondrocyte morphology. In the bovine injured cartilage explant model, after 14 days chondrocytes at the injury in the presence of FCS or synovial fluid (SF) produced morphological changes. These changes comprised cell enlargement, flattening, elongation and production of cytoplasmic processes. In the absence of FCS or SF, chondrocytes at the injury remained unaffected and were morphologically ‘normal’. Throughout the cartilage and even in the absence of subchondral bone, chondrocytes displayed morphological abnormalities in the presence of FCS or SF. These findings suggested that this is not the property of chondrocytes in the superficial layers alone rather it is due to the extent of penetration of the ‘factors’ into the matrix and there is no possibility of interference of injured site with osteocytes or bone factors. Histology revealed that these abnormal chondrocytes showed less staining with Alcian blue at the injury suggesting that these morphological changes might play a role in the changes to matrix metabolism. By raising the osmolarity of the culture medium these changes were inhibited and chondrocytes maintained their normal morphology. The results suggest that morphogenic/proliferative factors in FCS or SF and strength/damage to the matrix may be inter-related and act as potent controllers of chondrocyte morphology. Raised osmolarity was found to inhibit the morphological changes suggesting the possibly that hyperosmolarity can antagonise the effects of these factors. The key conclusions from the thesis were (a) in non-degenerate human femoral cartilage a large percentage of chondrocytes ~83% were normal in morphology and the rest were abnormal however in mildly-degenerate cartilage 35±5% abnormal chondrocytes with processes were present (b) the changes to chondrocyte morphology (development of clusters and processes) were exacerbated with cartilage degeneration (c) chondrocytes cultured in the weak gels produced morphological changes as compared to strong gels (d) chondrocytes at the injury displayed marked morphological changes in the presence of FCS or SF (e) by raising the medium osmolarity these morphological changes to chondrocytes at the injury were inhibited. These results show that chondrocyte morphology is complex and strongly dependent on the environmental settings. Experimental conditions were therefore identified which showed increased chondrocyte volume, abnormal morphology with cytoplasmic processes, enhanced proliferation/cluster formation and matrix changes. These changes to volume and morphology of chondrocytes in the models studied in this work had certain similarities to the changes observed in human cartilage suggesting that these shape changes may play a role in the changes to matrix metabolism occurring in OA. These findings may be of translational relevance in clinical and experimental research into cartilage injury and degeneration by providing new insights in understanding the role played by chondrocyte morphology in cartilage degeneration and injury

Intelligent Sensors for Human Motion Analysis

The book, "Intelligent Sensors for Human Motion Analysis," contains 17 articles published in the Special Issue of the Sensors journal. These articles deal with many aspects related to the analysis of human movement. New techniques and methods for pose estimation, gait recognition, and fall detection have been proposed and verified. Some of them will trigger further research, and some may become the backbone of commercial systems

Long View (41RB112): Data Recovery of Two Plains Village Period Components in Roberts County, Texas, Volume 2

This archeological data recovery investigation in Roberts County in the northeastern panhandle of Texas was necessitated by the proposed widening of State Highway 70 (CSJ: 0490-04-037) by the Texas Department of Transportation (TxDOT), Amarillo District. This proposed highway rehabilitation program will directly impact a roughly 10 meter (m, 30 ft.) wide north-south section of prehistoric site 41RB112, the Long View site. This site consists of two horizontally distinct Plains Village period occupations shallowly buried along a linear interfluvial ridge between two small tributary creeks to the Canadian River in the midslope of this broad, dissected valley. This site was initially discovered by TxDOT archeologist, Dennis Price in June 2004 during an archeological inventory of the proposed 9.7 kilometer (6 mile) section north of the Canadian River in response to the planned highway rehabilitation program. Based on Mr. Price’s discovery of multiple artifact classes in buried context he recommended this site be assessed for its eligibility for listing on the National Register of Historic Places under criterion d and possible designation as a State Archeological Landmark (SAL) per the requirements of Section 106 of the National Historic Preservation Act (NHPA) and other related legislation. Following the Texas Historical Commissions concurrence with that recommendation, TxDOT through the Environmental (ENV) Affairs Division, contracted to TRC Environmental Corporation (TRC) under an existing Scientific Services Contract No. 57XXSA006 and issued a Work Authorization to TRC of Austin to conduct the site eligibility assessment. During a site visit by TxDOT geoarcheologist James Abbott and TRC archeologist Mike Quigg in February 2005, the site boundaries were expanded to nearly 300 meters (m) along the proposed area of potential effect (APE). Investigative strategies were devised to assess the Long View site. In May 2005, TRC’s archeologists from Austin conducted archeological testing for a NRHP and SAL eligibility assessment investigation at 41RB112. The assessment along the 10-m-wide by 300-m-long APE was accomplished by hand-excavating 28 1-by-1 m units (totaling 16.8 m3), hand-excavating four narrow ca. 30 centimeter (cm) wide trenches (two in each area totaling nearly 32 linear meters), as well as cleaning and inspecting 28 m of existing road cut exposures. These investigations determined that cultural materials clustered at the northern and southern ends (Areas A and C respectively) of the site with nearly 120 m of noncultural bearing deposits (Area B) between the two concentrations. A 4-m-wide mechanically bladed fireguard paralleled the existing fenceline throughout the length of the APE and disturbed much of the near surface materials in that zone. The opposite, eastern side of the highway was investigated through the excavation of six 50-by-50 cm shovel tests, surface, and road cut inspection. Based on the results from the hand-excavations and various collections conducted during the site assessment, it became apparent that the two ends (Areas A and C) of the Long View site in TxDOT’s proposed APE contained well-defined cultural components in the top 50 cmbs. Each end appeared to represent habitation remains from single occupation episodes with potential structures, restricted to a narrow time period of less than 100 years between uncalibrated 630 and 710 B.P. of the Plains Village period. Rodent and natural disturbances had vertically displaced some small cultural objects within the sandy deposits, but the restricted period of occupation to roughly a 100 year period reduces this impact. TRC recommended the site was eligible for listing on the National Register and as a State Landmark. The Texas Historical Commissions concurred with that recommendation, and subsequently the ENV Affairs Division of TxDOT, again contracted to TRC under an existing Scientific Services Contract No. 575XXSA008 and issued a Work Authorization to TRC Austin to perform the mitigation of the proposed impacts. Data recovery investigations were conducted during August through November 2006 along the western side of the existing highway. The previously identified northern-Area A and southern–Area C areas with high concentrations of cultural materials were targeted. These investigations began with a thorough geophysical survey that employed three noninvasive electrical detective instruments across Areas A and C anticipating to detect the locations of subsurface cultural features to target by hand-excavations. Some excavations targeted the detected anomalies, whereas others targeted previously identified features. In the end, hand-excavated blocks were completed in Areas A and C. The excavations totaled 128 m2 in Area A and 93 m2 in Area C for a grand total of 221 m2 or 103.4 m3. In conjunction with the archeological excavations, geoarcheological investigations focused on defining the age and development of the natural Holocene sediments that contained the cultural materials. The geoarcheological assessment included detailed stratigraphic documentation of site and near site deposits, sediment texture characterization, soil thin sections, magnetic susceptibility, multiple chemical analyses (organic, calcium, and phosphorus). Detailed stratigraphic data was also collected at two rare pithouse structures to pursue construction and filling episodes. The excavations yielded significant and diverse cultural assemblages from the two occupations assigned Component A and C. Both components are attributed to the Plains Village period with two discrete occupations dating to uncalibrated 460 to 535 B.P. (cal A.D. 1398 to 1447) in Component A and 530 to 700 B.P. (cal A.D. 1280 to 1437) in Component C. The two assemblages are significant not only in their diversity and quality of materials but also in the information they yielded. This report represents one of the first complete documents to present the entire cultural assemblage from a single site for this time period and region. The total recovered assemblage includes 157 formal chipped and ground stone tools, 226 informal tools, 3,414 pieces of lithic debitage, over 6,400 faunal fragments (1.4 kg), some 1,541 ceramic sherds, 1,790 burned rocks, at least 116 macrobotanical samples that includes 16 maize cobs, two human burials, and remains of a third, juvenile scattered along a previously bladed fireguard, 32 intact cultural features that include two rare pithouses, and other cultural debris related to these two campsites. The human remains and associated artifacts will be repatriated in accord with the requirements of the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA). A suite of 10 technical analyses directed at mostly the cultural assemblages included; use-wear, phytolith, diatom, petrography, macrobotanical, starch grain, instrumental neutron activation, bison bone isotopes, obsidian sourcing, radiocarbon and optical stimulated dating. This data was used to address 11 specific research questions concerning these Plains Village period occupations. Not only does the cultural debris contribute to our understanding of the time period but the geoarcheological information obtained explains the conditions and how the materials were preserved, and inform us concerning the past depositional environment in this immediate area. The combined information contributes to a significant understanding to a specific part of the Plains Village cultures in the Texas panhandle. Following the acceptance of the final report by the TxDOT and the Texas Historical Commission these cultural materials and all the documentation from the combined investigations will be permanently curated at Texas State University in San Marcos, Texas. The curated materials will provide important data that can be researched by interested parties in the future