Multimodality carotid plaque tissue characterization and classification in the artificial intelligence paradigm: a narrative review for stroke application

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is one of the leading causes of morbidity and mortality in the United States of America and globally. Carotid arterial plaque, a cause and also a marker of such CVD, can be detected by various non-invasive imaging modalities such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), computer tomography (CT), and ultrasound (US). Characterization and classification of carotid plaque-type in these imaging modalities, especially into symptomatic and asymptomatic plaque, helps in the planning of carotid endarterectomy or stenting. It can be challenging to characterize plaque components due to (I) partial volume effect in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) or (II) varying Hausdorff values in plaque regions in CT, and (III) attenuation of echoes reflected by the plaque during US causing acoustic shadowing. Artificial intelligence (AI) methods have become an indispensable part of healthcare and their applications to the non-invasive imaging technologies such as MRI, CT, and the US. In this narrative review, three main types of AI models (machine learning, deep learning, and transfer learning) are analyzed when applied to MRI, CT, and the US. A link between carotid plaque characteristics and the risk of coronary artery disease is presented. With regard to characterization, we review tools and techniques that use AI models to distinguish carotid plaque types based on signal processing and feature strengths. We conclude that AI-based solutions offer an accurate and robust path for tissue characterization and classification for carotid artery plaque imaging in all three imaging modalities. Due to cost, user-friendliness, and clinical effectiveness, AI in the US has dominated the most

Applying novel machine learning technology to optimize computer-aided detection and diagnosis of medical images

The purpose of developing Computer-Aided Detection (CAD) schemes is to assist physicians (i.e., radiologists) in interpreting medical imaging findings and reducing inter-reader variability more accurately. In developing CAD schemes, Machine Learning (ML) plays an essential role because it is widely used to identify effective image features from complex datasets and optimally integrate them with the classifiers, which aims to assist the clinicians to more accurately detect early disease, classify disease types and predict disease treatment outcome. In my dissertation, in different studies, I assess the feasibility of developing several novel CAD systems in the area of medical imaging for different purposes. The first study aims to develop and evaluate a new computer-aided diagnosis (CADx) scheme based on analysis of global mammographic image features to predict the likelihood of cases being malignant. CADx scheme is applied to pre-process mammograms, generate two image maps in the frequency domain using discrete cosine transform and fast Fourier transform, compute bilateral image feature differences from left and right breasts, and apply a support vector machine (SVM) method to predict the likelihood of the case being malignant. This study demonstrates the feasibility of developing a new global image feature analysis based CADx scheme of mammograms with high performance. This new CADx approach is more efficient in development and potentially more robust in future applications by avoiding difficulty and possible errors in breast lesion segmentation. In the second study, to automatically identify a set of effective mammographic image features and build an optimal breast cancer risk stratification model, I investigate advantages of applying a machine learning approach embedded with a locally preserving projection (LPP) based feature combination and regeneration algorithm to predict short-term breast cancer risk. To this purpose, a computer-aided image processing scheme is applied to segment fibro-glandular tissue depicted on mammograms and initially compute 44 features related to the bilateral asymmetry of mammographic tissue density distribution between left and right breasts. Next, an embedded LLP algorithm optimizes the feature space and regenerates a new operational vector with 4 features using a maximal variance approach. This study demonstrates that applying the LPP algorithm effectively reduces feature dimensionality, and yields higher and potentially more robust performance in predicting short-term breast cancer risk. In the third study, to more precisely classify malignant lesions, I investigate the feasibility of applying a random projection algorithm to build an optimal feature vector from the initially CAD-generated large feature pool and improve the performance of the machine learning model. In this process, a CAD scheme is first applied to segment mass regions and initially compute 181 features. An SVM model embedded with the feature dimensionality reduction method is then built to predict the likelihood of lesions being malignant. This study demonstrates that the random project algorithm is a promising method to generate optimal feature vectors to improve the performance of machine learning models of medical images. The last study aims to develop and test a new CAD scheme of chest X-ray images to detect coronavirus (COVID-19) infected pneumonia. To this purpose, the CAD scheme first applies two image preprocessing steps to remove the majority of diaphragm regions, process the original image using a histogram equalization algorithm, and a bilateral low-pass filter. Then, the original image and two filtered images are used to form a pseudo color image. This image is fed into three input channels of a transfer learning-based convolutional neural network (CNN) model to classify chest X-ray images into 3 classes of COVID-19 infected pneumonia, other community-acquired no-COVID-19 infected pneumonia, and normal (non-pneumonia) cases. This study demonstrates that adding two image preprocessing steps and generating a pseudo color image plays an essential role in developing a deep learning CAD scheme of chest X-ray images to improve accuracy in detecting COVID-19 infected pneumonia. In summary, I developed and presented several image pre-processing algorithms, feature extraction methods, and data optimization techniques to present innovative approaches for quantitative imaging markers based on machine learning systems in all these studies. The studies' simulation and results show the discriminative performance of the proposed CAD schemes on different application fields helpful to assist radiologists on their assessments in diagnosing disease and improve their overall performance

Characterization of neurological disorders using evolutionary algorithms

The life expectancy increasing, in the last few decades, leads to a large diffusion of neurodegenerative age-related diseases such as Parkinson’s disease. Neurodegenerative diseases are part of the huge category of neurological disorders, which comprises all the disorders affecting the central nervous system. These conditions have a terrible impact on life quality of both patients and their families, but also on the costs associated to the society for their diagnosis and management. In order to reduce their impact on individuals and society, new better strategies for the diagnosis and monitoring of neurological disorders need to be considered. The main aim of this study is investigating the use of artificial intelligence techniques as a tool to help the doctors in the diagnosis and the monitoring of two specific neurological disorders (Parkinson’s disease and dystonia), for which no objective clinical assessments exist. The evolutionary algorithms are chosen as the artificial intelligence technique to evolve the best classifiers. The classifiers evolved by the chosen technique are then compared with those evolved by two popular well-known techniques: artificial neural network and support vector machine. All the evolved classifiers are not only able to distinguish among patients and healthy subjects but also among different subgroups of patients. For Parkinson’s disease: two different cognitive impairment subgroups of patients are considered, with the aim of an early diagnosis and a better monitoring. For dystonia: two kinds of dystonia patients are considered (organic and functional) to have a better insight in the division of the two groups. The results obtained for Parkinson’s disease are encouraging and evidenced some differences among the cognitive impairment subgroups. Dystonia results are not satisfactory at this stage, but the study presents some limitations that could be overcome in future work

Models and Analysis of Vocal Emissions for Biomedical Applications

The Models and Analysis of Vocal Emissions with Biomedical Applications (MAVEBA) workshop came into being in 1999 from the particularly felt need of sharing know-how, objectives and results between areas that until then seemed quite distinct such as bioengineering, medicine and singing. MAVEBA deals with all aspects concerning the study of the human voice with applications ranging from the neonate to the adult and elderly. Over the years the initial issues have grown and spread also in other aspects of research such as occupational voice disorders, neurology, rehabilitation, image and video analysis. MAVEBA takes place every two years always in Firenze, Italy

Pattern recognition applied to airflow recordings to help in sleep Apnea-Hypopnea Syndrome diagnosis

El Síndrome de la Apnea Hipopnea del Sueño (SAHS) es un trastorno caracterizado por pausas respiratorias durante el sueño. Se considera un grave problema de salud que afecta muy negativamente a la calidad de vida y está relacionada con las principales causas de mortalidad, como los accidentes cardiovasculares y cerebrovasculares. A pesar de su elevada prevalencia (2–7%) se considera una enfermedad infradiagnosticada. El diagnóstico estándar se realiza mediante polisomnografía (PSG) nocturna, que es un método complejo y de alto coste. Estas limitaciones han originado largas listas de espera. Esta Tesis Doctoral tiene como principal objetivo simplificar la metodología de diagnóstico del SAHS . Para ello, se propone el análisis exhaustivo de la señal de flujo aéreo monocanal. La metodología propuesta se basa en tres fases (i) extracción de características, (ii) selección de características, y (iii) procesado de la señal mediante métodos de reconocimiento de patrones. Los resultados obtenidos muestran un alto rendimiento diagnóstico de la propuesta tanto en la detección como en la determinación del grado de severidad del SAHS. Por ello, la principal conclusión de la Tesis Doctoral es que los métodos de reconocimiento automático de patrones aplicados sobre la señal de flujo aéreo monocanal resultan de utilidad para reducir la complejidad del proceso de diagnóstico del SAHS.Departamento de Teoría de la Señal y Comunicaciones e Ingeniería Telemátic

Utilisation de l’intelligence artificielle pour identifier les marqueurs de la démence dans le trouble comportemental en sommeil paradoxal

La démence à corps de Lewy (DCL) et la maladie de Parkinson (MP) sont des maladies neurodégénératives touchant des milliers de Canadiens et leur prévalence croît avec l’âge. La MP et la DCL partagent la même pathophysiologie, mais se distinguent par l’ordre de manifestation des symptômes : la DCL se caractérise d’abord par l’apparition d’un trouble neurocognitif majeur (démence), tandis que la MP se manifeste initialement par un parkinsonisme. De plus, jusqu’à 80% des patients avec la MP développeront une démence (MPD). Il est désormais établi que le trouble comportemental en sommeil paradoxal idiopathique (TCSPi) constitue un puissant prédicteur de la DCL et la MP. En effet, cette parasomnie, marquée par des comportements indésirables durant le sommeil, est considérée comme un stade prodromal des synucléinopathies, telles que la MP, la DCL et l'atrophie multisystémique (AMS). Ainsi, la majorité des patients atteints d’un TCSPi développeront une synucléinopathie. Malgré les avancées scientifiques, les causes du TCSPi, de la MP et de la DCL demeurent inconnues et aucun traitement ne parvient à freiner ou à arrêter la neurodégénérescence. De plus, ces pathologies présentent une grande hétérogénéité dans l’apparition et la progression des divers symptômes. Face à ces défis, la recherche vise à mieux cerner les phases précoces/initiales et les trajectoires évolutives de ces maladies neurodégénératives afin d’intervenir le plus précocement possible dans leur développement. C’est pourquoi le TCSPi suscite un intérêt majeur en tant que fenêtre d'opportunités pour tester l’efficacité des thérapies neuroprotectrices contre les synucléinopathies, permettant d'agir avant que la perte neuronale ne devienne irréversible. Le TCSPi offre ainsi une occasion unique d'améliorer la détection de la démence et le suivi des individus à haut risque de déclin cognitif. D'où l'importance cruciale de pouvoir généraliser les résultats issus de la recherche sur de petites cohortes à l'ensemble de la population. Sur le plan de la cognition, les études longitudinales sur le TCSPi ont montré que les atteintes des fonctions exécutives, de la mémoire verbale et de l'attention sont les plus discriminantes pour différencier les individus qui développeront une démence de ceux qui resteront idiopathiques. De plus, un grand nombre de patients TCSPi souffrent d’un trouble neurocognitif mineur ou trouble cognitif léger (TCL), généralement considéré comme un stade précurseur de la démence. Les recherches actuelles sur les données cognitives chez cette population offrent des perspectives prometteuses, mais reposent sur des approches statistiques classiques qui limitent leur validation et généralisation. Bien qu'elles offrent une précision élevée (80 à 85%) pour détecter les patients à risque de déclin cognitif, une amélioration est nécessaire pour étendre l'utilisation de ces marqueurs à une plus large échelle. Depuis les années 2000, l'accroissement de la puissance de calcul et l'accès à davantage de ressources de mémoire ont suscité un intérêt accru pour les algorithmes d'apprentissage machine (AM). Ces derniers visent à généraliser les résultats à une population plus vaste en entraînant des modèles sur une partie des données et en les testant sur une autre, validant ainsi leur application clinique. Jusqu'à présent, aucune étude n'a évalué les apports de l'AM pour la prédiction de l'évolution des synucléinopathies en se penchant sur le potentiel de généralisation, et donc d'application clinique, à travers l'usage d'outils non invasifs et accessibles ainsi que de techniques de validation de modèles (model validation). De plus, aucune étude n'a exploré l'utilisation de l'AM associée à des méthodes de généralisation sur des données neuropsychologiques longitudinales pour élaborer un modèle prédictif de la progression des déficits cognitifs dans le TCSPi. L’objectif général de cette thèse est d’étudier l’apport de l’AM pour analyser l’évolution du profil cognitif de patients atteints d’un TCSPi. Le premier chapitre de cette thèse présente le cadre théorique qui a guidé l’élaboration des objectifs et hypothèses de recherche. Le deuxième chapitre est à deux volets (articles). Le premier vise à fournir une vue d'ensemble de la littérature des études ayant utilisé l'AM (avec des méthodes de généralisation) pour prédire l'évolution des synucléinopathies vers une démence, ainsi que les lacunes à combler. Le deuxième volet vise à explorer et utiliser pour la première fois l'AM sur des données cliniques et cognitifs pour prédire la progression vers la démence dans le TCSPi, dans un devis longitudinal. Enfin, le dernier chapitre de la thèse présente une discussion et une conclusion générale, comprenant un résumé des deux articles, ainsi que les implications théoriques, les forces, les limites et les orientations futures.Lewy body dementia (LBD) and Parkinson's disease (PD) are neurodegenerative diseases affecting thousands of Canadians, and their prevalence increases with age. PD and DLB share the same pathophysiology, but differ in the order of symptom manifestation: DLB is characterized first by the onset of a major neurocognitive disorder (dementia), whereas PD initially manifests as parkinsonism. Moreover, up to 80% of PD patients will go on to develop dementia (PDD). It is established that idiopathic REM sleep behavior disorder (iRBD) is a powerful predictor of DLB and PD. Indeed, this parasomnia, marked by undesirable behaviors during sleep, is considered a prodromal stage of synucleinopathies, such as PD, DLB and multisystem atrophy (MSA). Therefore, the majority of patients with iRBD will develop synucleinopathy. Despite scientific advancements, the causes of iRBD, PD, and DLB remain unknown and no treatment has been able to slow or halt neurodegeneration. Furthermore, these pathologies display great heterogeneity in the onset and progression of various symptoms. Faced with these challenges, research aims to better understand the early/initial stages and the progressive trajectories of these neurodegenerative diseases in order to intervene as early as possible in their development. This is why iRBD garners major interest as a window of opportunities to test the effectiveness of neuroprotective therapies against synucleinopathies, enabling action to be taken before neuronal loss becomes irreversible. iRBD thus provides a unique opportunity to improve dementia detection and monitoring of individuals at high risk of cognitive decline. Hence the crucial importance of being able to generalize results of research on small cohorts to the entire population. In terms of cognition, longitudinal studies on iRBD have shown that impairments in executive functions, verbal memory, and attention are the most discriminating in differencing between individuals who will develop dementia from those who will remain idiopathic. In addition, many iRBD patients suffer from a mild neurocognitive disorder or mild cognitive impairment (MCI), generally considered as a precursor stage of dementia. Current research on cognitive data in this population offers promising prospects, but relies on traditional statistical approaches that limit their validation and generalizability. While they provide high accuracy (80 to 85%) for detecting patients at risk of cognitive decline, improvement is needed to extend the use of these markers to a larger scale. Since the 2000s, increased computational power and access to more memory resources have sparked growing interest in machine learning (ML) algorithms. These aim to generalize results to a broader population by training models on a subset of data and testing them on another, thus validating their clinical application. To date, no study has assessed the contributions of ML for predicting the progression of synucleinopathies, focusing on the potential for generalization, and hence clinical application, through the use of non-invasive, accessible tools and model validation techniques. Moreover, no study has explored the use of ML in conjunction with generalization methods on longitudinal neuropsychological data to develop a predictive model of cognitive deficit progression in iRBD. The general objective of this thesis is to study the contribution of ML in analyzing the evolution of the cognitive profile of patients with iRBD. The first chapter of this thesis presents the theoretical framework that guided the formulation of the research objectives and hypotheses. The second chapter is in two parts (articles). The first aims to provide an overview of the literature of studies that have used ML (with generalization methods) to predict the progression of synucleinopathies to dementia, as well as the gaps that need to be filled. The second part aims to explore and use for the first time ML on clinical and cognitive data to predict progression to dementia in iRBD, in a longitudinal design. Finally, the last chapter of the thesis presents a discussion and a general conclusion, including a summary of the two articles, as well as theoretical implications, strengths, limitations, and future directions