Worrying Affects Associative Fear Learning: A Startle Fear Conditioning Study

A valuable experimental model for the pathogenesis of anxiety disorders is that they originate from a learned association between an intrinsically non-aversive event (Conditioned Stimulus, CS) and an anticipated disaster (Unconditioned Stimulus, UCS). Most anxiety disorders, however, do not evolve from a traumatic experience. Insights from neuroscience show that memory can be modified post-learning, which may elucidate how pathological fear can develop after relatively mild aversive events. Worrying - a process frequently observed in anxiety disorders - is a potential candidate to strengthen the formation of fear memory after learning. Here we tested in a discriminative fear conditioning procedure whether worry strengthens associative fear memory. Participants were randomly assigned to either a Worry (n = 23) or Control condition (n = 25). After fear acquisition, the participants in the Worry condition processed six worrisome questions regarding the personal aversive consequences of an electric stimulus (UCS), whereas the Control condition received difficult but neutral questions. Subsequently, extinction, reinstatement and re-extinction of fear were tested. Conditioned responding was measured by fear-potentiated startle (FPS), skin conductance (SCR) and UCS expectancy ratings. Our main results demonstrate that worrying resulted in increased fear responses (FPS) to both the feared stimulus (CS+) and the originally safe stimulus (CS−), whereas FPS remained unchanged in the Control condition. In addition, worrying impaired both extinction and re-extinction learning of UCS expectancy. The implication of our findings is that they show how worry may contribute to the development of anxiety disorders by affecting associative fear learning

Regulation of Excitatory Synapses and Fearful Memories by Stress Hormones

Memories for emotionally arousing and fearful events are generally well retained. From the evolutionary point of view this is a highly adaptive behavioral response aimed to remember relevant information. However, fearful memories can also be inappropriately and vividly (re)expressed, such as in posttraumatic stress disorder. The memory formation of emotionally arousing events is largely modulated by hormones, peptides, and neurotransmitters which are released during and after exposure to these conditions. One of the core reactions in response to a stressful situation is the rapid activation of the autonomic nervous system, which results in the release of norepinephrine in the brain. In addition, stressful events stimulate the hypothalamus–pituitary–adrenal axis which slowly increases the release of glucocorticoid hormones from the adrenal glands. Here we will review how glucocorticoids and norepinephrine regulate the formation of fearful memories in rodents and humans and how these hormones can facilitate the storage of information by regulating excitatory synapses

"Плюси" та "мінуси" "принципів військової геометрії" Г.Боплана

На фоне развития математических знаний XVII в. анализируется учебник Г. Боплана по геометрии, написанный для использования в военном деле.The article shows “merits and demerits of G.Boplan’s «Military geometry principles” against a background of mathematical knowledge development of XVII century and analyses the course of geometry made for using it in military sciences

The Effects of Conceptual Processing Versus Suppression on Analogue PTSD Symptoms after a Distressing Film

Abstract BACKGROUND: Researchers have begun to scrutinize the assumption that active processing in response to a traumatic event is beneficial whereas avoidance of thoughts, emotions and reminders about the traumatic event is detrimental. Indications that avoidance is not always detrimental come from studies on grief and debriefing. AIMS: In an analogue experimental study, the hypothesis was tested that conceptually-driven processing immediately after a distressing film is more successful in reducing analogue PTSD symptoms than suppression of thoughts and images related to the film. METHOD: Ninety students watched a distressing film after which they were instructed to either elaborate on the meaning of the film (conceptual processing) (n = 31), suppress all thoughts and images of the film by performing a task (n = 29), or were given no instruction (n = 30). Four hours later, analogue PTSD symptoms were assessed. RESULTS: The results showed that conceptually-driven processing does not result in fewer analogue PTSD symptoms than suppression. CONCLUSIONS: It is speculated that suppression may only be dysfunctional when individuals interpret their symptoms negatively or when suppression is believed to be dysfunctional

Maine Campus October 29 1993

Complex learning procedures might be better suited than the common differential fear conditioning paradigm for detecting individual differences related to vulnerability for anxiety disorders. Two such procedures are the blocking procedure, which entails, in essence, selective learning of safety, and the protection-from-overshadowing procedure, which involves selective learning of threat. Their comparison allows for the examination of discriminatory fear learning under conditions of ambiguity. The present study examined the role of individual differences in such discriminatory fear learning. We hypothesized that heightened trait anxiety would be related to a deficit in discriminatory fear learning. Participants gave US-expectancy ratings as an index for the threat value of individual CSs following blocking and protection-from-overshadowing training. The difference in threat value at test between the protected-from-overshadowing CS and the blocked CS was negatively correlated with scores on a self-report tension-stress scale that approximates facets of generalized anxiety disorder (DASS-S), but not with other individual difference variables. In addition, a behavioral test showed that only participants scoring high on the DASS-S avoided the protected-from-overshadowing CS. This observed deficit in discriminatory fear learning for participants with high levels of tension-stress might be an underlying mechanism for fear overgeneralization in diffuse anxiety disorders such as generalized anxiety disorder.status: publishe

Individual Differences in Heart Rate Variability Predict the Degree of Slowing during Response Inhibition and Initiation in the Presence of Emotional Stimuli

Response inhibition is a hallmark of executive control and crucial to support flexible behavior in a constantly changing environment. Recently, it has been shown that response inhibition is influenced by the presentation of emotional stimuli (Verbruggen and De Houwer, 2007). Healthy individuals typically differ in the degree to which they are able to regulate their emotional state, but it remains unknown whether individual differences in emotion regulation (ER) may alter the interplay between emotion and response inhibition. Here we address this issue by testing healthy volunteers who were equally divided in groups with high and low heart rate variability (HRV) during rest, a physiological measure that serves as proxy of ER. Both groups performed an emotional stop-signal task, in which negative high arousing pictures served as negative emotional stimuli and neutral low arousing pictures served as neutral non-emotional stimuli. We found that individuals with high HRV activated and inhibited their responses faster compared to individuals with low HRV, but only in the presence of negative stimuli. No group differences emerged for the neutral stimuli. Thus, individuals with low HRV are more susceptible to the adverse effects of negative emotion on response initiation and inhibition. The present research corroborates the idea that the presentation of emotional stimuli may interfere with inhibition and it also adds to previous research by demonstrating that the aforementioned relationship varies for individuals differing in HRV. We suggest that focusing on individual differences in HRV and its associative ER may shed more light on the dynamic interplay between emotion and cognition

In search of the behavioral effects of fear: A paradigm to assess conditioned suppression in humans

Conditioned fear can substantially reduce the likelihood that an individual will engage in reward-related behavior--a phenomenon coined conditioned suppression. Despite the unmistakable relevance of conditioned suppression for excessive fears and their adverse consequences, the phenomenon has primarily been observed in animal models and is not yet well understood. Here, we aimed to develop a conditioned suppression paradigm that enables a robust quantification of the effect of Pavlovian fear on subsequent reward-related behavior in humans and assess its potential relation to physiological measures of fear. In phase 1, an instrumental response was incentivized with monetary rewards. In phase 2, one of two conditioned stimuli (CS+) was reinforced with an aversive unconditioned stimulus (US, i.e., electric stimulus). During Pavlovian fear learning we assessed differential skin conductance (SCR) and fear- potentiated startle responses (FPS). Lastly, we tested the effect of the fear conditioned CS+ on the response rate of the instrumental response in a transfer phase. Despite strong Pavlovian fear conditioning, as indicated by large effect sizes in differential SCR and FPS, we did not find any evidence for conditioned suppression: that is, there was no significant reduction of instrumental responding in the presence of the CS+ compared to a new control stimulus. This lack of conditioned suppression is in line with previous studies that reported difficulties inducing conditioned suppression and points toward a general challenge in investigating conditioned suppression in humans. Implications and directions for future research on the highly relevant behavioral effects of fear and anxiety are discussed

Can neutral episodic memories become emotional? Evidence from facial expressions and subjective feelings

Maladaptive emotional memories are a transdiagnostic feature of mental health problems. Therefore, understanding whether and how emotional memories can change might help to prevent and treat mental disorders. We tested whether neutral memories of naturalistic events can retroactively acquire positive or negative affect, in a preregistered three-day Modification of Valence in Episodes (MOVIE) paradigm. On Day 1, participants (N = 41) encoded memories of neutral movie scenes, representing lifelike naturalistic experiences. On Day 2, they retrieved each episode before viewing a happy, sad, or neutral scene from the same movie (yielding a within-subjects design with a neutral-negative, neutral-positive, and neutral-neutral condition). On Day 3, participants again retrieved each memory from Day 1. We assessed the affective tone of episodes through facial expressions of positive and negative affect (using facial electromyography, fEMG) and through self-reported feelings. Positive updating of neutral episodes led to increased expressions of positive affect, whereas negative updating led to increased self-reported negative feelings. These results suggest that complex neutral episodic memories can retroactively acquire an affective tone, but the effects were modest and inconsistent across affect readouts. Future research should investigate alternative approaches to updating emotional memories that produce more profound changes in the valence of memories

Blocking Mineralocorticoid Receptors prior to Retrieval Reduces Contextual Fear Memory in Mice

BACKGROUND: Corticosteroid hormones regulate appraisal and consolidation of information via mineralocorticoid receptors (MRs) and glucocorticoid receptors (GRs) respectively. How activation of these receptors modulates retrieval of fearful information and the subsequent expression of fear is largely unknown. We tested here whether blockade of MRs or GRs during retrieval also affects subsequent expression of fear memory. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: Mice were trained in contextual or tone cue fear conditioning paradigms, by pairing mild foot shocks with a particular context or tone respectively. Twenty-four hours after training, context-conditioned animals were re-exposed to the context for 3 or 30 minutes (day 2); tone-conditioned animals were placed in a different context and re-exposed to one or six tones. Twenty-four hours (day 3) and one month later, freezing behavior to the aversive context/tone was scored again. MR or GR blockade was achieved by giving spironolactone or RU486 subcutaneously one hour before retrieval on day 2. Spironolactone administered prior to brief context re-exposure reduced freezing behavior during retrieval and 24 hours later, but not one month later. Administration of spironolactone without retrieval of the context or immediately after retrieval on day 2 did not reduce freezing on day 3. Re-exposure to the context for 30 minutes on day 2 significantly reduced freezing on day 3 and one month later, but freezing was not further reduced by spironolactone. Administration of spironolactone prior to tone-cue re-exposure on day 2 did not affect freezing behavior. Treatment with RU486 prior to re-exposure did not affect context or tone-cue fear memories at any time point. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: We conclude that MR blockade prior to retrieval strongly reduces the expression of contextual fear, implying that MRs, rather than GRs, play an important role in retrieval of emotional information and subsequent fear expression