Minimalistic control of biped walking in rough terrain

Toward our comprehensive understanding of legged locomotion in animals and machines, the compass gait model has been intensively studied for a systematic investigation of complex biped locomotion dynamics. While most of the previous studies focused only on the locomotion on flat surfaces, in this article, we tackle with the problem of bipedal locomotion in rough terrains by using a minimalistic control architecture for the compass gait walking model. This controller utilizes an open-loop sinusoidal oscillation of hip motor, which induces basic walking stability without sensory feedback. A set of simulation analyses show that the underlying mechanism lies in the "phase locking” mechanism that compensates phase delays between mechanical dynamics and the open-loop motor oscillation resulting in a relatively large basin of attraction in dynamic bipedal walking. By exploiting this mechanism, we also explain how the basin of attraction can be controlled by manipulating the parameters of oscillator not only on a flat terrain but also in various inclined slopes. Based on the simulation analysis, the proposed controller is implemented in a real-world robotic platform to confirm the plausibility of the approach. In addition, by using these basic principles of self-stability and gait variability, we demonstrate how the proposed controller can be extended with a simple sensory feedback such that the robot is able to control gait patterns autonomously for traversing a rough terrai

Energy-Efficient Monopod Running with a Large Payload Based on Open-Loop Parallel Elastic Actuation

Despite the intensive investigations in the past, energetic efficiency is still one of the most important unsolved challenges in legged robot locomotion. This paper presents an unconventional approach to the problem of energetically efficient legged locomotion by applying actuation for spring mass running. This approach makes use of mechanical springs incorporated in parallel with relatively low-torque actuation, which is capable of both accommodating large payload and locomotion with low power input by exploiting self-excited vibration. For a systematic analysis, this paper employs both simulation models and physical platforms. The experiments show that the proposed approach is scalable across different payload between 0 and 150kg, and able to achieve a total cost of transport (TCOT) of 0.10, which is significantly lower than the previous locomotion robots and most of the biological systems in the similar scale, when actuated with the near-to natural frequency with the maximum payload.This study was supported by the Swiss National Science Foundation Grant No. PP00P2123387/1 and the Swiss National Science Foundation through the National Centre of Competence in Research Robotics

Collision-based energetic comparison of rolling and hopping over obstacles.

Locomotion of machines and robots operating in rough terrain is strongly influenced by the mechanics of the ground-machine interactions. A rolling wheel in terrain with obstacles is subject to collisional energy losses, which is governed by mechanics comparable to hopping or walking locomotion. Here we investigate the energetic cost associated with overcoming an obstacle for rolling and hopping locomotion, using a simple mechanics model. The model considers collision-based interactions with the ground and the obstacle, without frictional losses, and we quantify, analyse, and compare the sources of energetic costs for three locomotion strategies. Our results show that the energetic advantages of the locomotion strategies are uniquely defined given the moment of inertia and the Froude number associated with the system. We find that hopping outperforms rolling at larger Froude numbers and vice versa. The analysis is further extended for a comparative study with animals. By applying size and inertial properties through an allometric scaling law of hopping and trotting animals to our models, we found that the conditions at which hopping becomes energetically advantageous to rolling roughly corresponds to animals' preferred gait transition speeds. The energetic collision losses as predicted by the model are largely verified experimentally

Adaptation of sensor morphology: an integrative view of perception from biologically inspired robotics perspective

Sensor morphology, the morphology of a sensing mechanism which plays a role of shaping the desired response from physical stimuli from surroundings to generate signals usable as sensory information, is one of the key common aspects of sensing processes. This paper presents a structured review of researches on bioinspired sensor morphology implemented in robotic systems, and discusses the fundamental design principles. Based on literature review, we propose two key arguments: first, owing to its synthetic nature, biologically inspired robotics approach is a unique and powerful methodology to understand the role of sensor morphology and how it can evolve and adapt to its task and environment. Second, a consideration of an integrative view of perception by looking into multidisciplinary and overarching mechanisms of sensor morphology adaptation across biology and engineering enables us to extract relevant design principles that are important to extend our understanding of the unfinished concepts in sensing and perceptionThis study was supported by the European Commission with the RoboSoft CA (A Coordination Action for Soft Robotics, contract #619319). SGN was supported by School of Engineering seed funding (2016), Malaysia Campus, Monash University

Morphological Evolution of Physical Robots through Model-Free Phenotype Development.

Artificial evolution of physical systems is a stochastic optimization method in which physical machines are iteratively adapted to a target function. The key for a meaningful design optimization is the capability to build variations of physical machines through the course of the evolutionary process. The optimization in turn no longer relies on complex physics models that are prone to the reality gap, a mismatch between simulated and real-world behavior. We report model-free development and evaluation of phenotypes in the artificial evolution of physical systems, in which a mother robot autonomously designs and assembles locomotion agents. The locomotion agents are automatically placed in the testing environment and their locomotion behavior is analyzed in the real world. This feedback is used for the design of the next iteration. Through experiments with a total of 500 autonomously built locomotion agents, this article shows diversification of morphology and behavior of physical robots for the improvement of functionality with limited resources.This study was supported by the Swiss National Science Foundation Grant No. PP00P2123387/1 and the ETH Zurich Research Grant ETH-23-10-3. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.This is the final version of the article. It first appeared from [publisher] via http://dx.doi.org/1371/journal.pone.012844

Soft Morphological Processing of Tactile Stimuli for Autonomous Category Formation

Sensor morphology is a fundamental aspect of tactile sensing technology. Design choices induce stimuli to be morphologically processed, changing the sensory perception of the touched objects and affecting inference at a later processing stage. We develop a framework to analyze the filtered sensor response and observe the correspondent change in tactile information. We test the morphological processing effects on the tactile stimuli by integrating a capacitive tactile sensor into a flat end-effector and creating three soft silicon-based filters with varying thickness (3mm, 6mm and 10mm). We incorporate the end-effector onto a robotic arm. We control the arm in order to apply a calibrated force onto 4 objects, and retrieve tactile images. We create an unsupervised inference process through the use of Principal Component Analysis and K-Means Clustering.We use the process to group the sensed objects into 2 classes and observe how different soft filters affect the clustering results. The sensor response with the 3mm soft filter allows for edges to be the feature with most variance (captured by PCA) and induces the association of edged objects. With thicker soft filters the associations change, and with a 10mm filter the sensor response results more diverse for objects with different elongation. We show that the clustering is intrinsically driven by the morphology of the sensor and that the robot’s world understanding changes according to it.This work was funded by the UK Agriculture and Horticulture Development Board and by The United Kingdom Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC) MOTION grant [EP/N03211X/2]

Gaussian process inference modelling of dynamic robot control for expressive piano playing

Piano is a complex instrument, which humans learn to play after many years of practice. This paper investigates the complex dynamics of the embodied interactions between a human and piano, in order to gain insights into the nature of humans’ physical dexterity and adaptability. In this context, the dynamic interactions become particularly crucial for delicate expressions, often present in advanced music pieces, which is the main focus of this paper. This paper hypothesises that the relationship between motor control for key-pressing and the generated sound is a manifold problem, with high-degrees of non-linearity in nature. We employ a minimalistic experimental platform based on a robotic arm equipped with a single elastic finger in order to systematically investigate the motor control and resulting outcome of piano sounds. The robot was programmed to run 3125 key-presses on a physical digital piano with varied control parameters. The obtained data was applied to a Gaussian Process (GP) inference modelling method, to train a network in terms of 10 playing styles, corresponding to different expressions generated by a Musical Instrument Digital Interface (MIDI). By analysing the robot control parameters and the output sounds, the relationship was confirmed to be highly nonlinear, especially when the rich expressions (such as a broad range of sound dynamics) were necessary. Furthermore this relationship was difficult and time consuming to learn with linear regression models, compared to the developed GPbased approach. The performance of the robot controller was also compared to that of an experienced human player. The analysis shows that the robot is able to generate sounds closer to humans’ in some expressions, but requires additional investigations for othersEPSR

Tactile perception in hydrogel-based robotic skins using data-driven electrical impedance tomography

Combining functional soft materials with electrical impedance tomography is a promising method for developing continuum sensorized soft robotic skins with high resolutions. However, reconstructing the tactile stimuli from surface electrode measurements is a challenging ill-posed modelling problem, with FEM and analytic models facing a reality gap. To counter this, we propose and demonstrate a model-free superposition method which uses small amounts of real-world data to develop deformation maps of a soft robotic skin made from a self-healing ionically conductive hydrogel, the properties of which are affected by temperature, humidity, and damage. We demonstrate how this method outperforms a traditional neural network for small datasets, obtaining an average resolution of 12.1 mm over a 170 mm circular skin. Additionally, we explore how this resolution varies over a series of 15,000 consecutive presses, during which damages are continuously propagated. Finally, we demonstrate applications for functional robotic skins: damage detection/localization, environmental monitoring, and multi-touch recognition - all using the same sensing material

The trade-off between morphology and control in the co-optimized design of robots.

Conventionally, robot morphologies are developed through simulations and calculations, and different control methods are applied afterwards. Assuming that simulations and predictions are simplified representations of our reality, how sure can roboticists be that the chosen morphology is the most adequate for the possible control choices in the real-world? Here we study the influence of the design parameters in the creation of a robot with a Bayesian morphology-control (MC) co-optimization process. A robot autonomously creates child robots from a set of possible design parameters and uses Bayesian Optimization (BO) to infer the best locomotion behavior from real world experiments. Then, we systematically change from an MC co-optimization to a control-only (C) optimization, which better represents the traditional way that robots are developed, to explore the trade-off between these two methods. We show that although C processes can greatly improve the behavior of poor morphologies, such agents are still outperformed by MC co-optimization results with as few as 25 iterations. Our findings, on one hand, suggest that BO should be used in the design process of robots for both morphological and control parameters to reach optimal performance, and on the other hand, point to the downfall of current design methods in face of new search techniques.his work was enabled by funding provided by the RoboSoft Coordination Action project (FP7-ICT-2013-C project 619319)

First-Order Dynamic Modeling and Control of Soft Robots

Modeling of soft robots is typically performed at the static level or at a second-order fully dynamic level. Controllers developed upon these models have several advantages and disadvantages. Static controllers, based on the kinematic relations tend to be the easiest to develop, but by sacrificing accuracy, efficiency and the natural dynamics. Controllers developed using second-order dynamic models tend to be computationally expensive, but allow optimal control. Here we propose that the dynamic model of a soft robot can be reduced to first-order dynamical equation owing to their high damping and low inertial properties, as typically observed in nature, with minimal loss in accuracy. This paper investigates the validity of this assumption and the advantages it provides to the modeling and control of soft robots. Our results demonstrate that this model approximation is a powerful tool for developing closed-loop task-space dynamic controllers for soft robots by simplifying the planning and sensory feedback process with minimal effects on the controller accuracy