1,150 research outputs found

    Les fonctions sĂ©miotique et heuristique des symboles chimiques : Ou de l’icĂŽne au symbole et retour

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    L’histoire des signes employĂ©s par les (al) chimistes rĂ©vĂšle qu’il a surtout Ă©tĂ© fait appel Ă  deux modes d’association d’un signifiant Ă  son signifié : l’iconisme et la convention. Leur Ă©volution peut se diviser en trois pĂ©riodes : l’alchimie, la rĂ©volution berzĂ©lienne et la chimie contemporaine. Les alchimistes ont crĂ©Ă© des signes graphiques basĂ©s sur des analogies symboliques (pour les substances chimiques, non reprĂ©sentables iconiquement Ă  l’échelle macroscopique), ou sur un iconisme pur et simple (pour les appareils et les opĂ©rations). Ils n’ont toutefois jamais Ă©laborĂ© un systĂšme entiĂšrement cohĂ©rent. Lavoisier et Berzelius ont tournĂ© le dos Ă  ce type de signes pour adopter des signes alphabĂ©tiques conventionnels. Cependant le dĂ©veloppement moderne de la chimie a rendu nĂ©cessaire un retour Ă  l’iconisme (reprĂ©sentation spatiale des molĂ©cules). Ceci a Ă©tĂ© obtenu en ajoutant au systĂšme de Berzelius des Ă©lĂ©ments graphiques en relation d’iconisme avec le modĂšle supputĂ© des molĂ©cules (qui demeurent invisibles). Il en est rĂ©sultĂ© un systĂšme hybride tout Ă  fait original et opĂ©rationnel.The history of the signs used by (al)chemists reveals that two main modes were employed to associate a signifier to its signified: iconism and convention. Their evolution can be divided in three periods: alchemy, the berzelian revolution, and contemporary chemistry. The alchemists created graphic signs based on symbolic analogies (because chemical substances are impossible to represent iconically at the macroscopic level), or on a straightforward iconism (for equipment and operations). Nevertheless they never achieved a completely coherent system. Lavoisier and Berzelius rejected this type of signs, prefering the use of conventional alphabetic signs. However, the development of modern chemistry prompted a return to iconism, for the spatial representation of molecules. This was obtained by adding to the berzelian system graphic elements that were iconically related to the assumed model of the molecules (which remain invisible). The result was a highly original and operational hybrid system

    An Observation-Based Middlebox Policy Taxonomy

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    peer reviewedRecent years have seen the rise of middleboxes, such as NATs, firewalls, or TCP accelerators. Those middleboxes play an important role in today's Internet, including enterprise networks and cellular networks. However, despite their undisputable success in modern network architecture, their actual impact on packets, traffic, and network performance is not that much understood. In this paper, we propose a path impairment oriented middlebox classification that aims at categorizing the initial purpose of a middlebox policy as well as its potential complications

    PlasticitĂ© dĂ©veloppementale dans le cortex auditif : La rĂ©sultante de l’état de maturation cortical et des caractĂ©ristiques sonores de l’environnement

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    International audienceChez l’animal, la plasticitĂ© dĂ©veloppementale du systĂšme auditif n’a Ă©tĂ© que sporadiquement Ă©tudiĂ©e jusqu’au dĂ©but des annĂ©es 2000. Depuis, plusieurs sĂ©ries de travaux ont dĂ©montrĂ© l’existence d’une pĂ©riode critique nĂ©onatale pour le fonctionnement du cortex auditif et ont rĂ©vĂ©lĂ© les consĂ©quences drastiques que peuvent avoir des environnements bruitĂ©s au cours de cette pĂ©riode. NĂ©anmoins, aprĂšs la fin de cette pĂ©riode critique nĂ©onatale, la susceptibilitĂ© du systĂšme auditif aux environnements bruitĂ©s reste encore Ă©levĂ©e chez l’animal juvĂ©nile surtout si ces environnements prĂ©sentent des caractĂ©ristiques acoustiques particuliĂšres qui ne sont pas prĂ©sentes dans les milieux naturels

    Environmental determinism of year to year recruitment variability of European eel in a small coastal catchment, the Frémur river, north-west France

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    The influence of environmental factors (mainly the river flow) on the year-to-year variability of European eel Anguilla anguilla fluvial recruitment in a small coastal River (north-west France) was examined. A comprehensive survey of catches from fixed traps at two weirs located at 4·5 km (Pont es Omnes Dam) and 6·0 km (Bois Joli Dam) above the river mouth was carried out between 1997 and 2004. Young pigmented elvers (mean ± s.d. total length, 133·7 ± 29·6 mm) were recruited in eel-passes from February to October, but the main runs followed a modal curve from April to September with a peak centred in May to June. Catches varied greatly between years, from 381 to 26 765 elvers. For each trap, a positive linear relationship between monthly mean river flow that preceded the maximal intensity of captures and annual total catches was observed. These relationships explained 73·1% (P <0.01) and 89·0% (P <0.001) of the year-to-year variability of the recruitment observed in the Pont es Omnes and Bois Joli traps respectively. A significant increase in river flow at the beginning of the migration peak would thus trigger a greater proportion of A. anguilla settled in the estuary and in the downstream zone of the Fremur River to begin their freshwater colonization. The physicochemical roles of changes in river discharge in stimulating upstream migration are discussed. It is concluded that fluvial recruitment in the Fremur River is mainly determined by environmental factors

    Harvest-induced disruptive selection increases variance in fitness-related traits

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    The form of Darwinian selection has important ecological and management implications. Negative effects of harvesting are often ascribed to size truncation (i.e. strictly directional selection against large individuals) and resultant decrease in trait variability, which depresses capacity to buffer environmental change, hinders evolutionary rebound and ultimately impairs population recovery. However, the exact form of harvest-induced selection is generally unknown and the effects of harvest on trait variability remain unexplored. Here we use unique data from the Windermere (UK) long-term ecological experiment to show in a top predator (pike, Esox lucius) that the fishery does not induce size truncation but disruptive (diversifying) selection, and does not decrease but rather increases variability in pike somatic growth rate and size at age. This result is supported by complementary modelling approaches removing the effects of catch selectivity, selection prior to the catch and environmental variation. Therefore, fishing most likely increased genetic variability for somatic growth in pike and presumably favoured an observed rapid evolutionary rebound after fishery relaxation. Inference about the mechanisms through which harvesting negatively affects population numbers and recovery should systematically be based on a measure of the exact form of selection. From a management perspective, disruptive harvesting necessitates combining a preservation of large individuals with moderate exploitation rates, and thus provides a comprehensive tool for sustainable exploitation of natural resources

    Systématique et biogéographie du groupe Caesalpinia (famille Leguminosae)

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    Parmi les lignĂ©es des Caesalpinioideae (dans la famille des Leguminosae), l’un des groupes importants au sein duquel les relations phylogĂ©nĂ©tiques demeurent nĂ©buleuses est le « groupe Caesalpinia », un clade de plus de 205 espĂšces, rĂ©parties prĂ©sentement entre 14 Ă  21 genres. La complexitĂ© taxonomique du groupe Caesalpinia provient du fait qu’on n’arrive pas Ă  rĂ©soudre les questions de dĂ©limitations gĂ©nĂ©riques de Caesalpinia sensu lato (s.l.), un regroupement de 150 espĂšces qui sont provisoirement classĂ©es en huit genres. Afin d’arriver Ă  une classification gĂ©nĂ©rique stable, des analyses phylogĂ©nĂ©tiques de cinq loci chloroplastiques et de la rĂ©gion nuclĂ©aire ITS ont Ă©tĂ© effectuĂ©es sur une matrice comportant un Ă©chantillonnage taxonomique du groupe sans prĂ©cĂ©dent (~84% des espĂšces du groupe) et couvrant la quasi-totalitĂ© de la variation morphologique et gĂ©ographique du groupe Caesalpinia. Ces analyses ont permis de dĂ©terminer que plusieurs genres du groupe Caesalpinia, tels que prĂ©sentement dĂ©finis, sont polyphylĂ©tiques ou paraphylĂ©tiques. Nous considĂ©rons que 26 clades bien rĂ©solus reprĂ©sentent des genres, et une nouvelle classification gĂ©nĂ©rique du groupe Caesalpinia est proposĂ©e : elle inclut une clĂ© des genres, une description des 26 genres et des espĂšces acceptĂ©es au sein de ces groupes. Cette nouvelle classification maintient l’inclusion de douze genres (Balsamocarpon, Cordeauxia, Guilandina, Haematoxylum, Hoffmanseggia, Lophocarpinia, Mezoneuron, Pomaria, Pterolobium, Stenodrepanum, Stuhlmannia, Zuccagnia) et en abolit deux (Stahlia et Poincianella). Elle propose aussi de rĂ©instaurer deux genres (Biancaea et Denisophytum), de reconnaĂźtre cinq nouveaux genres (Arquita, Gelrebia, Hererolandia, Hultholia et Paubrasilia), et d’amender la description de sept genres (Caesalpinia, Cenostigma, Coulteria, Erythrostemon, Libidibia, Moullava, Tara). Les rĂ©sultats indiquent qu’il y aurait possiblement aussi une 27e lignĂ©e qui correspondrait au genre Ticanto, mais un Ă©chantillonage taxonomique plus important serait nĂ©cĂ©ssaire pour Ă©claircir ce problĂšme. Les espĂšces du groupe Caesalpinia ont une rĂ©partition pantropicale qui correspond presque parfaitement aux aires du biome succulent, mais se retrouvent aussi dans les dĂ©serts, les prairies, les savanes et les forĂȘts tropicales humides. À l’échelle planĂ©taire, le biome succulent consiste en une sĂ©rie d’habitats arides ou semi-arides hautement fragmentĂ©s et caractĂ©risĂ©s par l’absence de feu, et abrite souvent des espĂšces vĂ©gĂ©tales grasses, comme les CactacĂ©es dans les nĂ©o-tropiques et les EuphorbiacĂ©es en Afrique. L’histoire biogĂ©ographique du groupe Caesalpinia a Ă©tĂ© reconstruite afin de mieux comprendre l’évolution de la flore au sein de ce biome succulent. Ce portrait biogĂ©ographique a Ă©tĂ© obtenu grĂące Ă  des analyses de datations molĂ©culaires et des changements de taux de diversification, Ă  une reconstruction des aires ancestrales utilisant le modĂšle de dispersion-extinction-cladogenĂšse, et Ă  la reconstruction de l’évolution des biomes et du port des plantes sur la phylogĂ©nie du groupe Caesalpinia. Ces analyses dĂ©montrent que les disjonctions trans-continentales entre espĂšces sƓurs qui appartiennent au mĂȘme biome sont plus frĂ©quentes que le nombre total de changements de biomes Ă  travers la phylogĂ©nie, suggĂ©rant qu’il y a une forte conservation de niches, et qu’il est plus facile de bouger que de changer et d’évoluer au sein d’un biome diffĂ©rent. Par ailleurs, contrairement Ă  nos hypothĂšses initiales, aucun changement de taux de diversification n’est dĂ©tectĂ© dans la phylogĂ©nie, mĂȘme lorsque les espĂšces Ă©voluent dans des biomes diffĂ©rents ou qu’il y a changement de port de la plante, et qu’elle se transforme, par exemple, en liane ou herbacĂ©e. Nous suggĂ©rons que mĂȘme lorsqu’ils habitent des biomes trĂšs diffĂ©rents, tels que les savanes ou les forĂȘts tropicales humides, les membres du groupe Caesalpinia se retrouvent nĂ©anmoins dans des conditions Ă©cologiques locales qui rappellent celles du biome succulent. Finalement, bien que la diversitĂ© des espĂšces du biome succulent ne se compare pas Ă  celle retrouvĂ©e dans les forĂȘts tropicales humides, ce milieu se distingue par un haut taux d’espĂšces endĂ©miques, rĂ©parties dans des aires disjointes. Cette diversitĂ© spĂ©cifique est probablement sous-estimĂ©e et mĂ©rite d’ĂȘtre Ă©valuĂ©e attentivement, comme en tĂ©moigne la dĂ©couverte de plusieurs nouvelles espĂšces d’arbres et arbustes de lĂ©gumineuses dans la derniĂšre dĂ©cennie. Le dernier objectif de cette thĂšse consiste Ă  examiner les limites au niveau spĂ©cifique du complexe C. trichocarpa, un arbuste des Andes ayant une population disjointe au PĂ©rou qui reprĂ©sente potentiellement une nouvelle espĂšce. Des analyses morphologiques et molĂ©culaires sur les populations prĂ©sentes Ă  travers les Andes permettent de conclure que les populations au PĂ©rou reprĂ©sentent une nouvelle espĂšce, qui est gĂ©nĂ©tiquement distincte et comporte des caractĂ©ristiques morphologiques subtiles permettant de la distinguer des populations retrouvĂ©es en Argentine et en Bolivie. Nous dĂ©crivons cette nouvelle espĂšce, Arquita grandiflora, dans le cadre d’une rĂ©vision taxonomique du genre Arquita, un clade de cinq espĂšces retrouvĂ©es exclusivement dans les vallĂ©es andines.Amongst the lineages of the Caesalpinioideae (in the family Leguminosae), one of the largest groups where phylogenetic relationships remains unclear is the Caesalpinia Group, a clade of ca. 200 species, currently considered to comprise between 14 and 21 genera. The taxonomic complexity of the Caesalpinia Group stems from persisting doubts on the generic delimitations within Caesalpinia sensu lato, a group of 150 species that are provisionally classified into eight genera. In order to establish a stable generic classification, phylogenetic analyses of five chloroplastic loci and the nuclear ribosomal ITS locus were carried out on a matrix containing an unprecedented taxonomic sampling of the Caesalpinia Group (~84% of species of this group included), with virtually all of the morphological variation and geographic distribution represented. These analyses allowed us to determine that several genera of the Caesalpinia Group, as currently defined, are polyphyletic or paraphyletic. We consider that there are 26 well-resolved clades that represent distinct genera, and a new generic classification system is proposed, which includes a key to genera, the description of the 26 genera and all species accepted within these groups. A total of twelve previously accepted genera are maintained in this classification (Balsamocarpon, Cordeauxia, Guilandina, Haematoxylum, Hoffmanseggia, Lophocarpinia, Mezoneuron, Pomaria, Pterolobium, Stenodrepanum, Stuhlmannia, and Zuccagnia), whereas two genea are abolished (Stahlia and Poincianella). In addition, two genera are re-instated (Biancaea and Denisophytum), five new genera are described, (Arquita, Gelrebia, Hererolandia, Hultholia and Paubrasilia), and the description of seven genera are emended (Caesalpinia, Cenostigma, Coulteria, Erythrostemon, Libidibia, Moullava, Tara). Our results also indicate that there could possible be a 27th lineage corresponding to the genus Ticanto, but an increased taxonomic sampling is needed to adequately address this issue. The Caesalpinia Group has a pantropical distribution that corresponds almost perfectly to the geographical distribution of the Succulent Biome, but are also found in deserts, grassland prairies, savannahs, and tropical rainforests. On a planetary scale, the Succulent Biome consists of a series of semi-arid to arid habitats that are highly fragmented, and which are characterised by the absence of fire, such as deserts and dry forests. This biome often harbours succulent plant taxa, such as the Cactaceae in the Neotropics and the Euphorbiaceae in Africa. The biogeographical history of the Caesalpinia Group was reconstructed in order to gain insight into the evolution of the flora within this Succulent biome. This biogeographical portrait of this group was reconstructed using molecular dating analysis, diversification rate shifts tests, the reconstruction of ancestral areas using the dispersal-extinction-cladogenesis model (DEC), as well as through ancestral character reconstruction of the biomes and habits. These analyses demonstrate that intercontinental disjunctions between sister species belonging to the same biome are more frequent than the total number of biome shifts across the phylogeny, suggesting that there is a strong conservation of niches, and that it is easier to move than to switch to and evolve in a different biome. Furthermore, contrary to our initial hypothesis, no changes in diversification rates were detected in our phylogenies, even when species switched biomes or evolved a different plant habit, e.g. becoming lianas or herbaceous perennials. We suggest that even when members of the Caesalpinia Group inhabit different biomes, such as savannahs or tropical rainforests, they are still tracking local ecological conditions that are typical of the Succulent biome. Finally, while total plant species diversity in the Succulent Biome does not compare to the diversity found in tropical rainforests, this biome distinguishes itself by a high number of endemic species, distributed in disjunct patches across the world. This species diversity is probably under-estimated and needs to be carefully re-evaluated, as shown in several recent descriptions of new tree and shrub species from the Succulent biome, all published in the last decade. The last objective of this thesis is to examine the species limits in Caesalpinia trichocarpa, a shrub from the Andes that has a disjunct population in Peru, which potentially represents a new species. Morphological and molecular analyses of populations occurring across the Andes, including Bolivia and Argentina, allow us to conclude that the populations in Peru represent a new species, which is genetically distinct and has subtle morphological characteristics that allow it to be distinguished from populations found in Argentina and Bolivia. We describe this news species, Arquita grandiflora, in a taxonomic revision of the genus Arquita, a clade of five species found exclusively in Andean valleys

    Kan det utledes et generelt saklighetskrav ved ansettelse i privat sektor?

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    Oppgaven omhandler hvorvidt det kan utledes et generelt saklighetskrav ved ansettelse i privat sektor. Utgangspunktet er at arbeidsgiver kan ansette den han vil i kraft av styringsretten. For Ä gjÞre unntak fra dette kreves det sÊrskilt grunnlag. Oppgaven drÞfter hvorvidt rettskildene tilsier at det mÄ oppstilles et ulovfestet saklighetskrav ved ansettelse.MasteroppgaveJUS399MAJUR-2MAJU

    PENGARUH KEPEMIMPINAN YANG MELAYANI, KEPUASAN KERJA, DAN MOTIVASI INTRINSIK TERHADAP KINERJA GURU SEKOLAH LENTERA HARAPAN SANGIHE

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    Kepemimpinan yang melayani dapat efektif dijalankan jika pemimpin mampu mengambil keputusan yang tepat dalam segala kondisi dan situasi. Kepemimpinan yang melayani dan kepuasan kerja berperan untuk motivasi intrinsik guru sehingga memiliki pengaruh terhadap kinerja guru di sekolah. Penelitian ini dilakukan dengan tujuan untuk mengetahui pengaruh positif kepemimpinan yang melayani, kepuasan kerja dan motivasi intrinsik terhadap kinerja guru. Penelitian ini menggunakan pendekatan kuantitatif dengan subjek penelitian berjumlah 31 responden. Metode pengolahan data menggunakan analisis jalur (path analysis) Smart-PLS dan metode statistik deskriptif. Dari hasil penelitian, diperoleh kesimpulan (1) kepemimpinan yang melayani berpengaruh positif terhadap motivasi intrinsik, (2) kepuasan kerja berpengaruh positif terhadap motivasi intrinsik, (3) motivasi intrinsik berpengaruh positif terhadap kinerja guru, (4) kepemimpinan yang melayani berpengaruh positif terhadap kinerja guru, dan (5) kepuasan kerja berpengaruh positif terhadap kinerja guru. Kata kunci : kepemimpinan yang melayani, kepuasan kerja, motivasi intrinsik, dan kinerja guru
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