Psychometric Study on a Two-Factor Higher Order Structure of Mindfulness, Its Effects, and Mechanisms Related to Mental Health among Experienced Meditators

Objective: To investigate the psychometric and structural properties of the Five Facets Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ) among meditators, to develop a short form, and to examine associations of mindfulness with mental health and the mechanisms of mindfulness. Methods: Two independent samples were used, a German (n = 891) and a Spanish (n = 393) meditator sample, practicing various meditation styles. Structural and psychometric properties of the FFMQ were investigated with multigroup confirmatory factor analysis and exploratory structural equation modeling. Associations with mental health and mechanisms of mindfulness were examined with path analysis. Results: The derived short form broadly matched a previous item selection in samples of non-meditators. Self-regulated Attention and Orientation to Experience governed the facets of mindfulness on a higher-order level. Higher-order factors of mindfulness and meditation experience were negatively associated with symptoms of depression and anxiety, and perceived stress. Decentering and nonattachment were the most salient mechanisms of mindfulness. Aspects of emotion regulation, bodily awareness, and nonattachment explained the effects of mindfulness on depression and anxiety. Conclusions: A two-component conceptualization for the FFMQ, and for the study of mindfulness as a psychological construct, is recommended for future research. Mechanisms of mindfulness need to be examined in intervention studie

The serenity of the meditating mind: A cross-cultural psychometric study on a two-factor higher order structure of mindfulness, its effects, and mechanisms related to mental health among experienced meditators.

Objective To investigate the psychometric and structural properties of the Five Facets Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ) among meditators, to develop a short form, and to examine associations of mindfulness with mental health and the mechanisms of mindfulness. Methods Two independent samples were used, a German (n = 891) and a Spanish (n = 393) meditator sample, practicing various meditation styles. Structural and psychometric properties of the FFMQ were investigated with multigroup confirmatory factor analysis and exploratory structural equation modeling. Associations with mental health and mechanisms of mindfulness were examined with path analysis. Results The derived short form broadly matched a previous item selection in samples of non-meditators. Self-regulated Attention and Orientation to Experience governed the facets of mindfulness on a higher-order level. Higher-order factors of mindfulness and meditation experience were negatively associated with symptoms of depression and anxiety, and perceived stress. Decentering and nonattachment were the most salient mechanisms of mindfulness. Aspects of emotion regulation, bodily awareness, and nonattachment explained the effects of mindfulness on depression and anxiety. Conclusions A two-component conceptualization for the FFMQ, and for the study of mindfulness as a psychological construct, is recommended for future research. Mechanisms of mindfulness need to be examined in intervention studies

Die unterschiedlichen Effekte verschiedener Meditationsarten und -stile auf Achtsamkeitserleben, psychische Gesundheit und Persönlichkeit

Trotz der vielen Veröffentlichungen zur gesundheitsfördernden Wirkung von Acht- samkeit und Meditation ist noch wenig über die unterschiedlichen Auswirkungen verschiede- ner Meditationsarten auf das Achtsamkeitserleben, die psychische Gesundheit und das Wohl- befinden sowie auf die Persönlichkeit bekannt. Auch ist von Interesse, ob die Aufmerksam- keitslenkung während der Meditation, die nach Lutz, Slagter, Dunne und Davidson (2008) aufgeteilt werden kann in focused attention (FA) und open monitoring (OM), sich unter- schiedlich auf diese Bereiche auswirkt. In einer online Erhebung, an der 984 Personen (weib- lich: n = 704) teilnahmen, konnten focused attention Meditierende (n = 468) mit open monito- ring Meditierenden (n = 274) verglichen werden, sowie Zen-Meditierende (n = 64), Vipassana (n = 47) Meditierende und Yoga-Meditierende (n = 198). Weder die Unterschiede in der Aufmerksamkeitslenkung noch die Unterschiede zwischen den Meditationsarten führten zu Differenzen im Achtsamkeitserleben, der psychischen Gesundheit, der Verarbeitung von Af- fekten, der Emotionsregulationsfähigkeit, der Wahrnehmung von Stress oder in den Persön- lichkeitseigenschaften. Vorläufig bedeutet dies für die Praxis, dass bei der Indikation von achtsamkeitsbasierten Interventionen vor allem auf persönliche Vorlieben der Zielpersonen und auf Erreichbarkeit zu achten ist.In spite of many publications on the general health-supporting effect of mindfulness and meditation, little is still known about differential effects of specific types of meditation on mindfulness, psychological health and well-being, and personality. It is of further interest whether alternative modes of attention regulation during meditation, focused attention (FA) and open monitoring (OM) according to Lutz, Slagter, Dunne and Davidson (2008), affects these areas differently. Using the data of an online survey among meditators (N = 984; fe- male: n = 704), FA meditators (n = 468) were compared to OM meditators (n = 274), as well as Zen meditators (n = 64) to Vipassana meditators (n = 47) and yoga practitioners (n = 198). Neither mode of attention regulation nor specific type of meditation was associated with dif- ferences in mindfulness, psychological health, processing of affects, emotion regulation abil- ity, stress perception or personality. These results suggest that personal preference and acces- sibility may be the most important factors with regard to the indication of specific mindful- ness based interventions for treatment

Fit of Five-Factor Multigroup Models on All Five Facets.

<p><i>Note</i>. * Estimating loadings and thresholds of Items 4, 17, 18, 20, and 32 freely in both groups.</p><p>Fit of Five-Factor Multigroup Models on All Five Facets.</p

Path model on the effects of meditation experience on mindfulness, mechanisms of mindfulness, and depression and anxiety in the Spanish data.

<p>Numbers are standardized path coefficients. SRA  =  Self-regulated Attention; OTE  =  Orientation to Experience. Self-regulated Attention and Orientation to experience were allowed to correlate, as were mechanisms, and depression and anxiety. All <i>p</i>s <.015.</p

Factor Loadings in the Partial Measurement Invariance Five-Factor Model.

<p><i>Note</i>. Ger  =  German sample; Span  =  Spanish sample. α  =  Cronbach Alpha. Numbers refer to standardized factor loadings in the partial measurement invariance model where unstandardized loadings and thresholds were constrained to equality across samples. Items that were similarly retained in non-meditating samples (see text) are printed boldface. * Loadings and thresholds estimated freely in both groups. All <i>p</i>s<.001.</p><p>Factor Loadings in the Partial Measurement Invariance Five-Factor Model.</p

Factor Intercorrelations in the Five-Factor Multigroup Models.

<p><i>Note</i>. Figures in the upper triangular matrix display factor intercorrelations in the configural invariance model in the full FFMQ (left: German sample; right: Spanish sample), whereas figures in the lower triangular matrix factor intercorrelations in the partial measurement invariance model in the short form. All <i>p</i>s<.001.</p><p>Factor Intercorrelations in the Five-Factor Multigroup Models.</p

Path model on the effects of meditation experience on mindfulness and on facets of perceived stress in the German data.

<p>Numbers are standardized path coefficients. SRA  =  Self-regulated Attention; OTE  =  Orientation to Experience. Self-regulated Attention and Orientation to experience were allowed to correlate, as were the facets of perceived stress. All <i>p</i>s≤.001.</p

Sample Characteristics.

<p><i>Note</i>. ^a Based on 387 participants due to incomplete data. Based on ^b 738 and 348/^c 890 and 282 participants, respectively, for which data were available. *** <i>p</i><.001.</p><p>Sample Characteristics.</p

Fit of One-Factor Multigroup Models in Individual Facets.

<p>Fit of One-Factor Multigroup Models in Individual Facets.</p