Analysis of errors presented by illiterate adults throughout a computerized program to teach reading and writing skills

La tipología de los errores presentados por los niños en la adquisición de la lectura y la escritura ha sido ampliamente examinada. El análisis de errores permite inferir fuentes de control del comportamiento durante el aprendizaje, siendo así una herramienta importante para perfeccionar los programas de enseñanza. Sin embargo, pocos estudios han explorado los tipos de errores cometidos por adultos iletrados. Este es un estudio descriptivo que tuvo como objetivo identificar y analizar los errores cometidos por adultos que están aprendiendo a leer y escribir, a partir de un programa de enseñanza computarizado, con el fin de verificar la adecuación del programa a la necesidad de desarrollar procedimientos específicos para esta población. Quince adultos se sometieron individualmente al programa, el cual se compone de una secuencia de pasos de enseñanza y evaluación (pre y postpruebas y exámenes intermedios). Los errores fueron clasificados y analizados con referencia a las categorías descritas en la literatura y algunas nuevas creadas específicamente para este trabajo. Los datos muestran alta concentración de errores en algunas categorías, especialmente para el primer módulo de enseñanza, con indicación parcial de especificidad de los tipos de errores para la población objeto de estudio. Los participantes también presentaron dificultades en la tarea de dictado por construcción, lo cual indica la necesidad de perfeccionamiento del programa cuando es utilizado en la alfabetización de adultos.The typology of errors presented by children in the acquisition of reading and writing has been widely explored. Error analyses allow inferring sources of behavior control throughout the learning process and are an important tool for improving programs that teach reading and writing. Nevertheless, few studies have explored the types of errors made by illiterate adults. This is a descriptive study aiming to identify and analyze the errors made by adults participating in the process of learning to read and write using a computerized teaching program. The purpose was to evaluate the adequacy of the program and to point out whether there is a need to develop specific procedures for this population. Fifteen adults were individually submitted to the program, which comprises a sequence of teaching steps and assessments (pre and post-tests and intermediate tests). Errors made by the students were categorized and analyzed according to categories described in the literature as well as new ones created specifically for this study. The data show a high concentration of errors in some categories, particularly for the first teaching module, with partial indication of error type specificity for the population in focus. This study also shows the participants' difficulties in writing (construction spelling task), requiring improvement of the computerized program when applied to adult literacy.A tipologia de erros apresentados por crianças na aquisição de leitura e escrita tem sido amplamente explorada. A análise de erros permite inferir fontes de controle do comportamento ao longo da aprendizagem, sendo por isso um importante instrumento para o aperfeiçoamento de programas de ensino. No entanto, poucos estudos têm explorado a tipologia de erros apresentados por adultos iletrados. Este é um estudo descritivo que teve como objetivo identificar/analisar os erros cometidos por participantes adultos durante o processo de aprendizagem da leitura e escrita, submetidos a um programa informatizado de ensino, visando verificar a adequação do programa ou a necessidade de procedimentos específicos para esta população. Quinze adultos passaram individualmente pelo programa, constituído por uma sequência de passos de ensino e avaliação (pré e póstestes e testes intermediários). Os erros foram categorizados e analisados com base nas categorias descritas na literatura e categorias novas, criadas especificamente para este trabalho. Os dados mostraram grande concentração de erros em algumas categorias, principalmente para o primeiro módulo de ensino, com indicação parcial de especificidade de tipologia de erros para a população em foco. Os participantes também mostraram dificuldade na escrita (ditado por construção), indicando a necessidade de aperfeiçoamento do programa quando utilizado na alfabetização de adultos

Teaching Generative Reading Via Recombination of Minimal Textual Units: A Legacy of Verbal Behavior to Children in Brazil

This paper reports results of two studies that sought to teach generative reading skills to a large group of Brazilian children who were exhibiting protracted failure in school. Inspired by Skinner\u27s analysis of verbal relations and minimal verbal units, the methodology took advantage of certain characteristics of Portuguese. Many words in this language are comprised of two-letter syllabic units (e.g., BO+LA= ball, CA+BO= handle, LA+TA= can) that can be recombined to form new words (e.g., BOCA= mouth, BOTA= boot), thus establishing a route to generative reading via recombinative generalization. Such syllabic units were incorporated within curricular framework that used matching-to-sample and learning by exclusion methods to teach matching relations involving pictures, printed and spoken words, and printed and spoken syllables. Study 1 was conducted within a university-based learning center that maintained certain aspects of laboratory conditions. It showed that teaching textual relations between dictated and printed syllables could control procedurally the inter- and intra-participant variability observed in past studies that lacked this feature -resulting in virtually universally positive teaching outcomes. Study 2 was conducted in a public school programs that applied the same basic training methodology. Positive training outcomes in an experimental group were approximately 3-5 times greater than that in a placebo control group. Together, these studies illustrate that the functional analysis in Verbal Behavior is having a direct impact in educational science in Brazil. It has led to procedures that can be effectively translated from the laboratory to the community via delivery systems that can be implemented in the developing world

Relational learning in children with cochlear implants

The present study attempted to extend the stimulus equivalence methodology to study auditory-visual relations and assess their symbolic function in individuals with profound bilateral sensorineural hearing loss who had received cochlear implants

Levels of Phonological Awareness, Working Memory, and Lexical Knowledge in Elementary School Children

Relações entre linguagem oral, consciência fonológica e memória operacional têm sido demonstradas empiricamente, mas consciência fonológica engloba habilidades diferentes. Este artigo teve como objetivo investigar possíveis associações entre habilidades específicas de consciência fonológica e memória operacional fonológica em alunos do primeiro ano escolar. Na fase inicial ( n = 254), o estudo avaliou habilidades de consciência fonológica e memória operacional fonológica e encontrou elevada correlação positiva entre ambas as habilidades, confirmando e estendendo resultados de estudos prévios. A segunda fase ( n = 12) avaliou o vocabulário de indivíduos que obtiveram baixos ou altos escores em memória operacional e consciência fonológica na primeira fase. Os alunos com escores reduzidos de memória operacional e consciência fonológica obtiveram baixos escores em habilidades de linguagem expressiva, indicando que a memória operacional fonológica pode ter efeitos diretos sobre o conhecimento lexical. Esses resultados contribuem para a compreensão das relações investigadas e planejamento de estratégias de ensino.Las relaciones entre lenguaje oral, conciencia fonológica y memoria operacional han sido mostradas empíricamente, pero la conciencia fonológica engloba habilidades diferentes, mensuradas en diferentes niveles. El objetivo de este trabajo, conducido en dos estudios, fue investigar las posibles asociaciones entre las sub-clases de habilidades de conciencia fonológica, memoria fonológica de niños del primero año escolar. En el primero estudio ( n = 254), fueron evaluadas las habilidades de conciencia fonológica y memoria fonológica, que mostraron fuerte correlación positiva. En el segundo estudio ( n = 12), fueron realizados test de vocabulario en niños con bajos y altos escores en memoria operativa y conciencia fonológica. Los niños con puntuaciones bajas en memoria operativa fonológica y conciencia fonológica presentaran habilidades del lenguaje expresivo reducidas, indicando que la memoria operativa fonológica parece interferir directamente en el vocabulario. Los resultados contribuyen hacia la comprensión de las relaciones investigadas y afectan el plan de enseñanza.Relationships between oral language, phonological awareness, and working memory have been empirically demonstrated, however, phonological awareness encompasses different abilities, assessed at different levels. The present study investigated the possible associations between specific phonological awareness abilities and phonological working memory in first-grade students. In the initial phase ( n = 254), the study evaluated the abilities of phonological awareness and phonological working memory and found a high positive correlation between these abilities, thus confirming the findings of previous studies. The second phase ( n = 12) evaluated the vocabulary of individuals who, in the initial phase, showed low or high working memory and phonological awareness scores. Students with low working memory and low phonological awareness capacities had low scores in expressive language abilities, suggesting that phonological working memory may have direct effects on lexical knowledge. These results contribute to the understanding of the relationships investigated in this study and have important implications for planning teaching strategies

As origens da exclusão (origins of exclusion)

This paper reports on exclusion, a phenomenon demonstrated when a participant views an array of comparison stimuli, all but one of which has been defined in relation to a spoken sample stimulus (most often a dictated name). When a new undefined sample is spoken, participants immediately select the undefined comparison item without explicit training to do so. Exclusion has attracted interest from behavior analysts interested in analyzing emergent behavior and/or exploiting the potential of the procedure for teaching new behavior to persons with severe mental retardation. The importance of the research area has grown in recent years, as the phenomenon has been recognized also by researchers interested in the development of child language and comparative cognition. Since the first studies of exclusion, in the mid-1970s, we have learned much about the populations in which it appears, the types of stimuli that can enter into exclusion, and the contexts that affect performances. Yet a fundamental question remains unanswered: What is the origin of exclusion performance? Why do virtually all individuals demonstrate exclusion on the very first opportunity? A research group from the Shriver Center for Mental Retardation (USA) have recently developed a series of methodologically intricate, sometimes interconnected single-subject designs to answer these questions. This paper will describe work that has been completed thus far with individuals with severe mental retardation and a comparison group of typically developing children

Levels of Phonological Awareness, Working Memory, and Lexical Knowledge in Elementary School Children

Relationships between oral language, phonological awareness, and working memory have been empirically demonstrated, however, phonological awareness encompasses different abilities, assessed at different levels. The present study investigated the possible associations between specific phonological awareness abilities and phonological working memory in first-grade students. In the initial phase ( n = 254), the study evaluated the abilities of phonological awareness and phonological working memory and found a high positive correlation between these abilities, thus confirming the findings of previous studies. The second phase ( n = 12) evaluated the vocabulary of individuals who, in the initial phase, showed low or high working memory and phonological awareness scores. Students with low working memory and low phonological awareness capacities had low scores in expressive language abilities, suggesting that phonological working memory may have direct effects on lexical knowledge. These results contribute to the understanding of the relationships investigated in this study and have important implications for planning teaching strategies

Naming New Stimuli After Selection by Exclusion

O responder por exclusão em tarefas de escolha de acordo com o modelo é um dos padrões mais robustos do comportamento humano. Contudo, uma única resposta por exclusão não assegura a aprendizagem da relação arbitrária entre dois estímulos. O presente estudo teve por objetivo investigar a quantidade de exposição necessária até que oito pré-escolares nomeassem duas figuras novas emparelhadas, por exclusão, a palavras novas. Após o estabelecimento de uma linha de base de emparelhamentos entre figuras e palavras ditadas, duas palavras novas eram introduzidas em sondas de exclusão. Em cada sonda, uma palavra nova era ditada e uma figura nova era apresentada entre outras figuras definidas experimentalmente. Sondas em tarefas de emparelhamento e de nomeação das figuras mostraram aprendizagem das relações condicionais e emergência da nomeação depois de três a 10 tentativas de exclusão. A nomeação correta tendeu a ocorrer de forma mais regular quando a fase de ensino estabeleceu controle de estímulos por seleção.El responder por exclusión en tareas de igualación a la muestra es uno de los patrones más robustos del comportamiento humano. No obstante, una única respuesta por exclusión no garantiza el aprendizaje de la relación arbitraria entre dos estímulos. El presente estudio investigó la cantidad de exposiciones necesarias para que ocho estudiantes preescolares nominaran dos figuras nuevas emparejadas, por exclusión, con palabras nuevas. Después del establecimiento de una línea de base de emparejamientos entre figuras y palabras dictadas, dos palabras nuevas eran introducidas en pruebas de exclusión. En cada prueba, una palabra nueva era dictada y una figura nueva presentada entre otras definidas. Pruebas de aprendizaje en tareas de igualación al modelo y de nominación de las figuras mostraron que la nominación emergió después de tres a 10 ensayos de exclusión. Se observó que la nominación correcta ocurrió de forma más fidedigna cuando el control era por selección.Responding by exclusion in matching-to-sample tasks is a robust behavioral pattern in humans. A single selection, however, does not ensure learning of the arbitrary relationship between the sample and the selected comparison stimulus. The present study aimed to investigate the amount of exposure required until eight preschoolers were able to name two undefined pictures, matched by exclusion, to two undefined words. After establishing a matching-to-sample baseline between pictures and dictated words, two new words were introduced in exclusion probes. On each probe, a new word was dictated and the matrix of comparison stimuli included a new picture and two experimentally defined pictures. Naming emerged after three to10 exclusion trials. Correct naming tended to occur more reliably when the teaching phase established stimulus control by selection

Emergent word-object mapping by children: Further studies using the blank comparison technique

Two experiments examined the emergent mapping phenomenon in Portuguese-speaking children aged 3-13. This phenomenon is relevant to developmental psychologists\u27 interest in fast mapping of new word-referent relations and also to behavior analysts\u27 interest in behavior that emerges without explicit conditioning. We studied 52 children, using the blank comparison matching-to-sample technique described by Wilkinson and Mclivane (1997). The technique allows direct measurement of the stimulus control bases of emergent mapping, for example, to determine whether new words and their referents are related directly or via rejection (i.e., exclusion) of previously defined referents. Children demonstrated both types of controlling relations. These studies systematically replicate prior emergent mapping research in a large cohort of non-English-speaking children. Also found were apparent developmental differences between older and younger children. Although all children tended to relate novel stimuli, the tendency appeared to decline as children aged. This study confirms the utility of the blank comparison technique in emergent mapping research and also provides the first data set from school-aged children

Naming New Stimuli After Selection by Exclusion

Responding by exclusion in matching-to-sample tasks is a robust behavioral pattern in humans. A single selection, however, does not ensure learning of the arbitrary relationship between the sample and the selected comparison stimulus. The present study aimed to investigate the amount of exposure required until eight preschoolers were able to name two undefined pictures, matched by exclusion, to two undefined words. After establishing a matching-to-sample baseline between pictures and dictated words, two new words were introduced in exclusion probes. On each probe, a new word was dictated and the matrix of comparison stimuli included a new picture and two experimentally defined pictures. Naming emerged after three to10 exclusion trials. Correct naming tended to occur more reliably when the teaching phase established stimulus control by selection