ロシヤ文学者昇曙夢の生涯と芸術を語る ―武者小路実篤 「昇曙夢の時代があった」―(平成21年度国文学会研究発表会第1回講演要旨)

平成21年度国文学会研究発表会第1回講演　日時:平成21年7月18日(土)

Development of the Community Water Model (CWatM v1.04) – a high-resolution hydrological model for global and regional assessment of integrated water resources management

We develop a new large-scale hydrological and water resources model, the Community Water Model (CWatM), which can simulate hydrology both globally and regionally at different resolutions from 30 arcmin to 30 arcsec at daily time steps. CWatM is open source in the Python programming environment and has a modular structure. It uses global, freely available data in the netCDF4 file format for reading, storage, and production of data in a compact way. CWatM includes general surface and groundwater hydrological processes but also takes into account human activities, such as water use and reservoir regulation, by calculating water demands, water use, and return flows. Reservoirs and lakes are included in the model scheme. CWatM is used in the framework of the Inter-Sectoral Impact Model Intercomparison Project (ISIMIP), which compares global model outputs. The flexible model structure allows for dynamic interaction with hydro-economic and water quality models for the assessment and evaluation of water management options. Furthermore, the novelty of CWatM is its combination of state-of-the-art hydrological modeling, modular programming, an online user manual and automatic source code documentation, global and regional assessments at different spatial resolutions, and a potential community to add to, change, and expand the open-source project. CWatM also strives to build a community learning environment which is able to freely use an open-source hydrological model and flexible coupling possibilities to other sectoral models, such as energy and agriculture

Recent advancement in water quality indicators for eutrophication in global freshwater lakes

Eutrophication is a major global concern in lakes, caused by excessive nutrient loadings (nitrogen and phosphorus) from human activities and likely exacerbated by climate change. Present use of indicators to monitor and assess lake eutrophication is restricted to water quality constituents (e.g. total phosphorus, total nitrogen) and does not necessarily represent global environmental changes and the anthropogenic influences within the lake's drainage basin. Nutrients interact in multiple ways with climate, basin conditions (e.g. socio-economic development, point-source, diffuse source pollutants), and lake systems. It is therefore essential to account for complex feedback mechanisms and non-linear interactions that exist between nutrients and lake ecosystems in eutrophication assessments. However, the lack of a set of water quality indicators that represent a holistic understanding of lake eutrophication challenges such assessments, in addition to the limited water quality monitoring data available. In this review, we synthesize the main indicators of eutrophication for global freshwater lake basins that not only include the water quality constituents but also the sources, biogeochemical pathways and responses of nutrient emissions. We develop a new causal network (i.e. multiple links of indicators) using the DPSIR (drivers-pressure-state-impact-response) framework that highlights complex interrelationships among the indicators and provides a holistic perspective of eutrophication dynamics in freshwater lake basins. We further review the 30 key indicators of drivers and pressures using seven cross-cutting themes: (i) hydro-climatology, (ii) socio-economy, (iii) land use, (iv) lake characteristics, (v) crop farming and livestock, (vi) hydrology and water management, and (vii) fishing and aquaculture. This study indicates a need for more comprehensive indicators that represent the complex mechanisms of eutrophication in lake systems, to guide the global expansion of water quality monitoring networks, and support integrated assessments to manage eutrophication. Finally, the indicators proposed in this study can be used by managers and decision-makers to monitor water quality and set realistic targets for sustainable water quality management to achieve clean water for all, in line with Sustainable Development Goal 6

Impacts of Irrigation on Daily Extremes in the Coupled Climate System

Widespread irrigation alters regional climate through changes to the energy and water budgets of the land surface. Within general circulation models, simulation studies have revealed significant changes in temperature, precipitation, and other climate variables. Here we investigate the feedbacks of irrigation with a focus on daily extremes at the global scale. We simulate global climate for the year 2000 with and without irrigation to understand irrigation-induced changes. Our simulations reveal shifts in key climate-extreme metrics. These findings indicate that land cover and land use change may be an important contributor to climate extremes both locally and in remote regions including the low-latitudes

Groundwater-dependent ecosystems at risk - Global hotspot analysis and implications

Many land-based ecosystems are dependent on groundwater and could be threatened by human groundwater abstraction. One key challenge for the description of associated impacts is the initial localisation of groundwater-dependent ecosystems (GDEs). This usually requires a mixture of extensive site-specific data collection and the use of geospatial datasets and remote sensing techniques. To date, no study has succeeded in identifying different types of GDEs in parallel worldwide. The main objective of this work is to perform a global screening analysis to identify GDE potentials rather than GDE locations. In addition, potential risks to GDEs from groundwater abstraction shall be identified. We defined nine key indicators that capture GDE potentials and associated risks on a global grid of 0.5° spatial resolution. Groundwater-dependent streams, wetlands and vegetation were covered, and a GDE index was formulated incorporating the following three aspects: the extent of groundwater use per GDE type, GDE diversity and GDE presence by land cover. The results show that GDE potentials are widely distributed across the globe, but with different distribution patterns depending on the type of ecosystem. The highest overall potential for GDEs is found in tropical regions, followed by arid and temperate climates. The GDE potentials were validated against regional studies, which showed a trend of increasing matching characteristics towards higher GDE potentials, but also inconsistencies upon closer analysis. Thus, the results can be used as first-order estimates only, which would need to be explored in the context of more site-specific analyses. Identified risks to GDEs from groundwater abstraction are more geographically limited and concentrated in the US and Mexico, the Iberian Peninsula and the Maghreb, as well as Central, South and East Asia. The derived findings on GDEs and associated risks can be useful for prioritising future research and can be integrated into sustainability-related tools such as the water footprint.</p

Multimodel uncertainty changes in simulated river flows induced by human impact parameterizations

Human impacts increasingly affect the global hydrological cycle and indeed dominate hydrological changes in some regions. Hydrologists have sought to identify the human-impact-induced hydrological variations via parameterizing anthropogenic water uses in global hydrological models (GHMs). The consequently increased model complexity is likely to introduce additional uncertainty among GHMs. Here, using four GHMs, between-model uncertainties are quantified in terms of the ratio of signal to noise (SNR) for average river flow during 1971–2000 simulated in two experiments, with representation of human impacts (VARSOC) and without (NOSOC). It is the first quantitative investigation of between-model uncertainty resulted from the inclusion of human impact parameterizations. Results show that the between-model uncertainties in terms of SNRs in the VARSOC annual flow are larger (about 2% for global and varied magnitude for different basins) than those in the NOSOC, which are particularly significant in most areas of Asia and northern areas to the Mediterranean Sea. The SNR differences are mostly negative (-20% to 5%, indicating higher uncertainty) for basin-averaged annual flow. The VARSOC high flow shows slightly lower uncertainties than NOSOC simulations, with SNR differences mostly ranging from -20% to 20%. The uncertainty differences between the two experiments are significantly related to the fraction of irrigation areas of basins. The large additional uncertainties in VARSOC simulations introduced by the inclusion of parameterizations of human impacts raise the urgent need of GHMs development regarding a better understanding of human impacts. Differences in the parameterizations of irrigation, reservoir regulation and water withdrawals are discussed towards potential directions of improvements for future GHM development. We also discuss the advantages of statistical approaches to reduce the between-model uncertainties, and the importance of calibration of GHMs for not only better performances of historical simulations but also more robust and confidential future projections of hydrological changes under a changing environment

Exploring the value of machine learning for weighted multi-model combination of an ensemble of global hydrological models

This study presents a novel application of machine learning to deliver optimised, multi-model combinations (MMCs) of Global Hydrological Model (GHM) simulations. We exemplify the approach using runoff simulations from five GHMs across 40 large global catchments. The benchmarked, median performance gain of the MMC solutions is 45% compared to the best performing GHM and exceeds 100% when compared to the EM. The performance gain offered by MMC suggests that future multimodel applications consider reporting MMCs, alongside the EM and intermodal range, to provide endusers of GHM ensembles with a better contextualised estimate of runoff. Importantly, the study highlights the difficulty of interpreting complex, non-linear MMC solutions in physical terms. This indicates that a pragmatic approach to future MMC studies based on machine learning methods is required, in which the allowable solution complexity is carefully constrained

Reconstruction of global gridded monthly sectoral water withdrawals for 1971-2010 and analysis of their spatiotemporal patterns

Human water withdrawal has increasingly altered the global water cycle in past decades, yet our understanding of its driving forces and patterns is limited. Reported historical estimates of sectoral water withdrawals are often sparse and incomplete, mainly restricted to water withdrawal estimates available at annual and country scale, due to a lack of observations at local and seasonal time scales. In this study, through collecting and consolidating various sources of reported data and developing spatial and temporal statistical downscaling algorithms, we reconstruct a global monthly gridded (0.5 degree) sectoral water withdrawal dataset for the period 1971–2010, which distinguishes six water use sectors, i.e. irrigation, domestic, electricity generation (cooling of thermal power plants), livestock, mining, and manufacturing. Based on the reconstructed dataset, the spatial and temporal patterns of historical water withdrawal are analyzed. Results show that global total water withdrawal has increased significantly during 1971–2010, mainly driven by the increase of irrigation water withdrawal. Regions with high water withdrawal are those densely populated or with large irrigated cropland production, e.g., the United States (US), eastern China, India, and Europe. Seasonally, irrigation water withdrawal in summer for the major crops contributes a large percentage of annual total irrigation water withdrawal in mid and high-latitude regions, and the dominant season of irrigation water withdrawal is also different across regions. Domestic water withdrawal is mostly characterized by a summer peak, while water withdrawal for electricity generation has a winter peak in high-latitude regions and a summer peak in low-latitude regions. Despite the overall increasing trend, irrigation in the western US and domestic water withdrawal in western Europe exhibit a decreasing trend. Our results highlight the distinct spatial pattern of human water use by sectors at the seasonal and annual scales. The reconstructed gridded water withdrawal dataset is open-access, and can be used for examining issues related to water withdrawals at fine spatial, temporal and sectoral scales

From scripts towards provenance inference

Scientists require provenance information either to validate their model or to investigate the origin of an unexpected value. However, they do not maintain any provenance information and even designing the processing workflow is rare in practice. Therefore, in this paper, we propose a solution that can build the workflow provenance graph by interpreting the scripts used for actual processing. Further, scientists can request fine-grained provenance information facilitating the inferred workflow provenance.We also provide a guideline to customize the workflow provenance graph based on user preferences. Our evaluation shows that the proposed approach is relevant and suitable for scientists to manage provenance

Groundwater depletion embedded in international food trade

Recent hydrological modelling1 and Earth observations2,3 have located and quantified alarming rates of groundwater depletion worldwide. This depletion is primarily due to water withdrawals for irrigation1,2,4, but its connection with the main driver of irrigation, global food consumption, has not yet been explored. Here we show that approximately eleven per cent of non-renewable groundwater use for irrigation is embedded in international food trade, of which two-thirds are exported by Pakistan, the USA and India alone. Our quantification of groundwater depletion embedded in the world’s food trade is based on a combination of global, cropspecific estimates of non-renewable groundwater abstraction and international food trade data. A vast majority of the world’s population lives in countries sourcing nearly all their staple crop imports from partners who deplete groundwater to produce these crops, highlighting risks for global food and water security. Some countries, such as the USA, Mexico, Iran and China, are particularly exposed to these risks because they both produce and import food irrigated from rapidly depleting aquifers. Our results could help to improve the sustainability of global food production and groundwater resource management by identifying priority regions and agricultural products at risk as well as the end consumers of these products