La Gouvernance Urbaine Dans les Espaces Marchands a Bafoussam (Ouest -Cameroun)

La question des espaces marchands est au cœur de la gestion des villes d’Afrique sub-saharienne. Ces espaces, dotés d’une forte valeur symbolique, remplissent une fonction économique et sociale cruciale. Leur gouvernance au Cameroun fait l’objet d’une exclusivité de l’Etat, acteur principal de la gestion des villes. L’explosion de l’effectif des commerçants rend les infrastructures marchandes largement insuffisantes. Commerçants de gros, détaillants, sauveteurs et autres colporteursrivalisent dans l’occupation des espaces tandis que les communes d’arrondissement et la Communauté Urbaine se battent pour le contrôle de la gestion des marchés. L’objectif de cet article est d’analyser les jeux, enjeux et conflits qui émergent de l’intervention de différents acteurs sur les espaces marchands. L’hypothèse émise pose que les rivalités et les conflits entre acteurs de la gouvernance des espaces marchands tiennent à la fois des jeux d’intérêts personnels et collectifs souvent inavoués. Pour le vérifier, une enquête a été conduite auprès de 435 commerçants, 7 interviews ont été menées auprès des personnes ressources auxquelles se sont greffées des observations. Le traitement statistique et l’analyse des données quantitatives et qualitatives ont permis de comprendre que le désordre urbain dû à l’occupation anarchique de l’espace marchand à Bafoussam dévoile un déficit de gouvernance motivé par des intérêts divergents. La décentralisation qui aurait pu contribuer au développement de la ville a plutôt engendré des rivalités politiques et économiques. Les opérations de reconstruction des marchés érigées en mode de régulation de l’espace marchand par les CTD 2 n’ont pas pu résoudre le problème de l’occupation anarchique desdits espaces par les commerçants. Il en ressort les comportements antisociaux, la mauvaise maintenance des infrastructures et la mauvaise image des espaces marchands.   The issue of commercial spaces is at the center of city management in sub-Saharan Africa. Such spaces, with high symbolic values, have a crucial economic and social function. Commercial spaces in Cameroon are exclusively handled by the State government, main actor of cities management. The exponential increase in number of merchants renders the available commercial infrastructures very insufficient. Dealers, retailers and other small scale traders compete for space while local government authorities and those in charge of cities ensure proper management of markets. The aim of this study is to evaluate the games, challenges and conflicts between different actors of commercial space. The hypothesis is that rivalries and conflicts between actors of commercial spaces governance represent both individual and collective games of interest, often denied. To test this hypothesis, an investigation was carried out on 435 merchants; 7 resource personnel’s were interviewed and observations were made. Both quantitative and qualitative data were collected. Data management and Statistical analysis showed that urban disorder due to anarchic occupation of commercial space in Bafoussam reveals the lack of urban governance, motivated by divergent interests. Decentralization, which is expected to contribute to the development of cities, has instead brought political and economic rivalries. The reconstruction of markets by DTC 3 , in order to regularize/manage the commercialspace, could not solve the problem of anarchic occupation of those 3 Decentralised Territorial Authorithies spaces by merchants. This led to anti-social behaviours, poor maintenance of infrastructures and bad image of commercial spaces

Développement de panneaux de particules à base d'écorce d'épinette noire et de peuplier faux-tremble

Ce travail de recherche avait un double objectif. D’abord, optimiser la proportion et la granulométrie (forme, dimensions, distribution) des particules d’écorce non extraite et extraite pour la production de panneaux de particules dont les propriétés physiques et mécaniques respectent les exigences des normes en vigueur. Ensuite, mettre en évidence les effets du traitement à l’eau chaude des écorces sur le système constitué des particules d’écorce et de l’adhésif utilisé (phénol-formaldéhyde) afin de déterminer son impact sur les propriétés physiques et mécaniques des panneaux. Les écorces fraîches d’épinette noire (Picea mariana (Mill.)) et de peuplier faux-tremble (Populus tremuloides (Michx.)) provenant d’écorceuses d’usines de transformation du bois ont été collectées, traitées (extraites) à l’eau chaude ou non, séchées et broyées. Les particules obtenues ont été tamisées et séparées en quatre classes de granulométrie : une pour les couches couvrantes (0,2-1,5 mm), et trois autres (fine : 1,5-2,6 mm ; moyenne : 2,6-5,0 mm et grossière : 5,0-7,0 mm) pour les couches médianes. Ces particules d’écorce ont été utilisées seules ou mélangées à des particules de bois obtenues d’usines de panneaux pour fabriquer des panneaux de particules de masse volumique cible 800 kg/m3 et contenant 50 et 100% d’écorce. Les propriétés physiques et mécaniques des panneaux fabriqués comme le module d’élasticité (MOE), le module de rupture (MOR), la cohésion interne (CI), la dureté Janka (DJ), le gonflement en épaisseur (GE) et la dilatation linéaire (DL) ont été déterminées et comparées d’une part entre elles et d’autre part à celles de panneaux témoins constitués de 100% de particules de bois. D’après les résultats, les propriétés mécaniques des panneaux de particules diminuent avec l’augmentation de la proportion d’écorce non extraite et extraite d’épinette noire et de peuplier faux-tremble. Parallèlement, il y a une augmentation légère du GE et substantielle de la DL. L’influence de la granulométrie des particules sur les panneaux a été davantage observée au niveau de la cohésion interne. Ainsi, la cohésion interne des panneaux contenant 50% d’écorce diminue lorsque la taille des particules d’écorce augmente. Pour les autres propriétés, ce facteur est observé surtout dans le cas des panneaux à 100% d’écorce. Les panneaux de particules ayant 50% d’écorce d’épinette noire ont obtenu les valeurs les plus élevées de MOE, MOR, CI et les moins élevées de DL. Ces valeurs étaient respectivement 12, 37, 54% moins élevées et 45% plus élevées que celles des panneaux témoins. Les panneaux d’écorce de peuplier faux-tremble ont obtenu les valeurs de gonflement en épaisseur les moins élevées. Tous les panneaux comportant 50% d’écorce non extraite d’épinette noire et de peuplier faux-tremble ont respecté les exigences de la norme ANSI A208.1-1999 pour les panneaux de particules à moyenne densité à usage commercial (M-1) et de sous-plancher (PBU) en ce qui concerne le MOE, MOR, CI et DJ. Le traitement (ou l’extraction) à l’eau chaude des écorces a affecté leurs propriétés physico-chimiques en diminuant leur mouillabilité, leur acidité et la quantité de polyphénols susceptibles de réagir avec le formaldéhyde. On a observé une détérioration des propriétés physiques et mécaniques des panneaux de particules fabriqués avec les écorces extraites à l’exception de la dureté.This study aims at optimizing bark content and particle geometry in order to produce bark particleboards that can meet the usual performances required by the standard. Specific objectives were 1) to determine the effects of unextracted and extracted bark content, and particle geometry (shape, size and distribution) on the physical and mechanical properties of particleboard made from black spruce and trembling aspen bark; 2) to highlight the effects of hot water treatment of bark on the bark particles/PF adhesive system as well as its impact on the physical and mechanical properties of particleboard made from black spruce and trembling aspen bark. Fresh black spruce (Picea mariana (Mill.)) and trembling aspen (Populus tremuloides (Michx.)) bark was collected from the debarking units of wood processing plants, treated (extracted) with hot water or not, dried, crushed in a hammer mill and sieved in four groups. The first group with particle size of 0.2-1.5 mm was used for the surface layer. The three other groups called fine, medium and coarse of particle size 1.5-2.6 mm, 2.6-5.0 mm and 5.0-7.0 mm. Wood particles were added to the bark particles to produce mixed wood bark particleboards. Particleboards of different bark content (50 and 100%), with a target density of 800 kg/m3 were manufactured and their mechanical and physical properties including the modulus of elasticity (MOE), modulus of rupture (MOR), internal bond (IB), Janka hardness (HJ), thickness swelling (TS), and linear expansion (LE) investigated and compared to a control made of 100% wood particles. The results showed that, while the mechanical properties of the particleboard made from black spruce and trembling aspen bark decreased with increasing bark content, the linear expansion (LE) increased and the thickness swelling (TS) increased slightly. The effect of particle size was observed mostly on the internal bond (IB). In spite of the low effective bark ratio of the coarse particles, the IB of the boards often decreased with increasing bark particle size. For the other properties, the boards made of 100% bark seem to be more affected by the particle geometry than those made of 50% bark. Particleboard made from 50% black spruce bark showed the highest MOE, MOR, IB and the lowest LE with values 12, 37, 54% lower and 45% higher than the control, respectively. Particleboard made from trembling aspen bark showed the lowest TS. The MOE, MOR, IB and HJ of boards made from 50% unextracted black spruce and trembling aspen bark met the requirements for commercial (M-1) and underlayment (PBU) panels of the ANSI A208.1-1999 standard. Hot water treatment affects the physical and chemical properties of the bark by decreasing the hydrophilic properties, the acidity and the amount of condensable polyphenols able to react with formaldehyde. A detrimental effect was noticed on all the physical and mechanical properties of particleboards made from extracted bark except for the Janka hardness where no significant decrease was found

Effect of the Aqueous Extract of Justicia insularis T. Anders (Acanthaceae) on Ovarian Folliculogenesis and Fertility of Female Rats

Justicia insularis T. Anders (Acanthaceae) is a medicinal plant whose leaves and those of three other plants are mixed for the preparation of a concoction used to improve fertility and to reduce labour pains in women of the Western Region of Cameroon. Previous studies have demonstrated the inducing potential on ovarian folliculogenesis and steroidogenesis of the aqueous extract of the leaf mixture (ADHJ) of four medicinal plants (Aloe buettneri, Dicliptera verticillata, Hibiscus macranthus and Justicia insularis) among which the later represented the highest proportion. This study was aimed at evaluating the ovarian inducing potential of J. insularis in immature female rats. Various doses of the aqueous extract of J. insularis were daily and orally given, for 20 days, to immature female rats distributed into four experimental groups of twenty animals each. At the end of the experimental period some biochemical and physiological parameters of ovarian function were assayed. The administration of the aqueous extract of Justicia insularis significantly induced an early vaginal opening in all treated groups (P < 0.001) as well as an increase (at doses of 50 or 100 mg/kg) in the number of hemorrhagic points, Corpus luteum, implantation sites, ovarian weight, uterine and ovarian proteins. Ovarian cholesterol level (P < 0.05) significantly decreased in animals treated with the lowest dose (12.5 mg/kg). The evaluation of the toxicological effects of the extract on pregnancy showed that it significantly increased pre- and post-implantation losses, resorption index and decreased the rate of nidation as well as litter’s weight. These results suggest that the aqueous extract of Justicia insularis induces ovarian folliculogenesis thus justifying its high proportion in the leaf mixture of ADHJ.Keywords: Justicia insularis, vaginal opening, ovary, fertility, gestation, resorption index

Effects of Hot-Water Treatment of Black Spruce and Trembling Aspen Bark RAW Material on the Physical and Mechanical Properties of Bark Particleboard

The understanding of the interaction between bark extractives and adhesives is fundamental in the manufacture of bark particleboard for optimum adhesive curing, and mechanical and physical properties of the boards. The effect of hot-water treatment on black spruce and trembling aspen bark was investigated to highlight its impact on the bark particles/phenol-formaldehyde adhesive system, and on the physical and mechanical properties of bark particleboard made from hot-water-treated bark of both species. Bark was soaked in hot water maintained at 100°C for 3 h. The results showed that the hot-water treatment affects the physical and chemical properties of the bark by decreasing hydrophilic characteristics, acidity, and the amount of condensable polyphenols that can react with formaldehyde. The mechanical properties, including static bending and internal bond of particleboard made from untreated black spruce and trembling aspen bark, were higher than those of boards made from hot-water-treated bark of the same species. The thickness swelling of particleboard made from hot-water-treated black spruce and trembling aspen bark was higher than that made from untreated bark. One exception occurred for particleboard made from 100% trembling aspen bark for which no significant difference was found between particleboards made from treated and untreated barks

Phenotypic correlations among growth and selected wood properties in white spruce (Picea glauca (Moench) Voss)

We examined phenotypic relationships among radial growth-related, physical (i.e., related to wood density), and anatomical (i.e., related to tracheid dimensions) wood properties in white spruce (Picea glauca (Moench) Voss), in order to determine the strength and significance of their correlations. Additionally, principal component analysis (PCA) was used to establish if all of the properties must be measured and to determine the key properties that can be used as proxies for the other variables. Radial growth-related and physical properties were measured with an X-ray densitometer, while anatomical properties were measured with a Fiber Quality Analyzer. Fifteen wood properties (tracheid length (TL) and diameter (TD), earlywood tracheid length (ETL) and diameter (ETD), latewood tracheid length (LTL) and diameter (LTD), ring width (RW), ring area (RA), earlywood width (EWW), latewood width (LWW), latewood proportion (LWP), ring density (RD), intra-ring density variation, earlywood density (EWD), and latewood density (LWD)) were assessed. Relationships were evaluated at intra-ring and inter-ring levels in the juvenile wood (JW) and mature wood (MW) zones. Except for a few cases when mature tracheid diameter (TD) was involved, all intra-ring anatomical properties were highly and significantly correlated. Radial growth properties were correlated, with stronger relationships in MW compared to JW. Physical properties were often positively and significantly correlated in both JW and MW. A higher earlywood density coupled with a lower latewood density favored wood uniformity, i.e., the homogeneity of ring density within a growth ring. Managing plantations to suppress trees growth during JW formation, and enhancing radial growth when MW formation starts will favor overall wood quality. In order, RW-EWW-RA, TL-ETL-LTL, and RD-EWD-LWP are the three clusters that appeared in the three wood zones, the whole pith-to-bark radial section, the juvenile wood zone, and the mature wood zon

EFFECT OF THE AQUEOUS EXTRACT OF JUSTICIA INSULARIS T. ANDERS (ACANTHACEAE) ON OVARIAN FOLLICULOGENESIS AND FERTILITY OF FEMALE RATS

Justicia insularis T. Anders (Acanthaceae) is a medicinal plant whose leaves and those of three other plants are mixed for the preparation of a concoction used to improve fertility and to reduce labour pains in women of the Western Region of Cameroon. Previous studies have demonstrated the inducing potential on ovarian folliculogenesis and steroidogenesis of the aqueous extract of the leaf mixture (ADHJ) of four medicinal plants (Aloe buettneri, Dicliptera verticillata, Hibiscus macranthus and Justicia insularis) among which the later represented the highest proportion. This study was aimed at evaluating the ovarian inducing potential of J. insularis in immature female rats. Various doses of the aqueous extract of J. insularis were daily and orally given, for 20 days, to immature female rats distributed into four experimental groups of twenty animals each. At the end of the experimental period some biochemical and physiological parameters of ovarian function were assayed. The administration of the aqueous extract of Justicia insularis significantly induced an early vaginal opening in all treated groups (P < 0.001) as well as an increase (at doses of 50 or 100 mg/kg) in the number of hemorrhagic points, Corpus luteum, implantation sites, ovarian weight, uterine and ovarian proteins. Ovarian cholesterol level (P < 0.05) significantly decreased in animals treated with the lowest dose (12.5 mg/kg). The evaluation of the toxicological effects of the extract on pregnancy showed that it significantly increased pre- and post-implantation losses, resorption index and decreased the rate of nidation as well as litter’s weight. These results suggest that the aqueous extract of Justicia insularis induces ovarian folliculogenesis thus justifying its high proportion in the leaf mixture of ADHJ

Sample Preparation Techniques for Electrochemical Analysis of Pesticides and Heavy Metals in Environmental and Food Samples

The development of an analytical methodology commonly includes sampling and sample pretreatment-preparation. The sample preparation step should provide the analytes (pesticides, heavy metals, drugs, dyes…etc.) in an adequate medium (typically aqueous or non-aqueous solution) to be detected and/or quantified. It is, therefore, necessary to ensure that the sample is homogeneous and free of interferents, as long as the preparation step is the most significant source of error in the analytical method development and is the most time-consuming step especially when solid samples are analyzed. Given its importance, this preparation step has a fundamental importance in the overall analytical method development, mainly when electroanalytical methods are applied. In this chapter, the steps involved in preparing samples for electrochemical analysis will be described in detail. Specifically, we will be focusing on the sample preparation techniques for the electrochemical analysis of pesticides and heavy metals, in environmental and food samples. For non-electrochemical readers, a brief introduction to the most commonly used electroanalytical methods will be described