7 research outputs found
Progress toward fusion energy breakeven and gain as measured against the Lawson criterion
The Lawson criterion is a key concept in the pursuit of fusion energy,
relating the fuel density , pulse duration or energy confinement time
, and fuel temperature to the energy gain of a fusion plasma.
The purpose of this paper is to explain and review the Lawson criterion and to
provide a compilation of achieved parameters for a broad range of historical
and contemporary fusion experiments. Although this paper focuses on the Lawson
criterion, it is only one of many equally important factors in assessing the
progress and ultimate likelihood of any fusion concept becoming a commercially
viable fusion-energy system. Only experimentally measured or inferred values of
, or , and that have been published in the peer-reviewed
literature are included in this paper, unless noted otherwise. For extracting
these parameters, we discuss methodologies that are necessarily specific to
different fusion approaches (including magnetic, inertial, and magneto-inertial
fusion). This paper is intended to serve as a reference for fusion researchers
and a tutorial for all others interested in fusion energy.Comment: This manuscript has been submitted for publication. Comments and
corrections are welcome. We especially welcome you to bring to our attention
if/when new papers are published with new record Lawson parameters and triple
products for various fusion concepts. Please email the first author at the
provided email address at the bottom of p. 1 of the manuscrip
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A CMOS Active Pixel Sensor for Charged Particle Detection
Active Pixel Sensor (APS) technology has shown promise for next-generation vertex detectors. This paper discusses the design and testing of two generations of APS chips. Both are arrays of 128 by 128 pixels, each 20 by 20 {micro}m. Each array is divided into sub-arrays in which different sensor structures (4 in the first version and 16 in the second) and/or readout circuits are employed. Measurements of several of these structures under Fe{sup 55} exposure are reported. The sensors have also been irradiated by 55 MeV protons to test for radiation damage. The radiation increased the noise and reduced the signal. The noise can be explained by shot noise from the increased leakage current and the reduction in signal is due to charge being trapped in the epi layer. Nevertheless, the radiation effect is small for the expected exposures at RHIC and RHIC II. Finally, we describe our concept for mechanically supporting a thin silicon wafer in an actual detector
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Using an Active Pixel Sensor In A Vertex Detector
Research has shown that Active Pixel CMOS sensors can detect charged particles. We have been studying whether this process can be used in a collider environment. In particular, we studied the effect of radiation with 55 MeV protons. These results show that a fluence of about 2 x 10{sup 12} protons/cm{sup 2} reduces the signal by a factor of two while the noise increases by 25%. A measurement 6 months after exposure shows that the silicon lattice naturally repairs itself. Heating the silicon to 100 C reduced the shot noise and increased the collected charge. CMOS sensors have a reduced signal to noise ratio per pixel because charge diffuses to neighboring pixels. We have constructed a photogate to see if this structure can collect more charge per pixel. Results show that a photogate does collect charge in fewer pixels, but it takes about 15 ms to collect all of the electrons produced by a pulse of light
Recommended from our members
Using an Active Pixel Sensor In A Vertex Detector
Research has shown that Active Pixel CMOS sensors can detect charged particles. We have been studying whether this process can be used in a collider environment. In particular, we studied the effect of radiation with 55 MeV protons. These results show that a fluence of about 2 x 10{sup 12} protons/cm{sup 2} reduces the signal by a factor of two while the noise increases by 25%. A measurement 6 months after exposure shows that the silicon lattice naturally repairs itself. Heating the silicon to 100 C reduced the shot noise and increased the collected charge. CMOS sensors have a reduced signal to noise ratio per pixel because charge diffuses to neighboring pixels. We have constructed a photogate to see if this structure can collect more charge per pixel. Results show that a photogate does collect charge in fewer pixels, but it takes about 15 ms to collect all of the electrons produced by a pulse of light