Superior sperm competitors sire higher-quality young

The evolution of polyandry remains controversial. This is because, unlike males, in many cases multiple mating by females does not increase fecundity and inevitably involves some costs. As a result, a large number of indirect benefit models have been proposed to explain polyandry. One of these, the good sperm hypothesis, posits that high-quality males are better sperm competitors and sire higher-quality offspring. Hence, by mating multiply, females produce offspring of superior quality. Despite being potentially widely applicable across species, this idea has received little attention. In a laboratory experiment with yellow dung flies ( Scathophaga stercoraria ) we found that males that were more successful in sperm competition also had offspring that developed faster. There was no relationship between paternal success in sperm competition and the ability of offspring to survive post-emergence starvation. Since faster development times are likely to be advantageous in this species, our data provide some support for polyandry evolving as a means of producing higher-quality offspring via sperm competition

Sexual selection: Large sex combs signal male triumph in sperm competition

A new study using artificial selection reveals that the size of the sex comb on the legs of male flies is genetically correlated with their fertility success under conditions of sperm competition

Conflict on the sex chromosomes: cause, effect, and complexity

Intralocus sexual conflict and intragenomic conflict both affect sex chromosome evolution and can in extreme cases even cause the complete turnover of sex chromosomes. Additionally, established sex chromosomes often become the focus of heightened conflict. This creates a tangled relationship between sex chromosomes and conflict with respect to cause and effect. To further complicate matters, sexual and intragenomic conflict may exacerbate one another and thereby further fuel sex chromosome change. Different magnitudes and foci of conflict offer potential explanations for lineage-specific variation in sex chromosome evolution and answer long-standing questions as to why some sex chromosomes are remarkably stable, whereas others show rapid rates of evolutionary change.J.E.M. is supported by the European Research Council (grant agreement 260233) and a short-term fellowship from the Wissenschaftskolleg zu Berlin. D.J.H. is supported by the University of Exeter, and N.W. by the University of Exeter and The Royal Society (Wolfson Award)

Experimental evolution reveals trade-offs between mating and immunity

This is the final version of the article. Available from the publisher via the DOI in this record.Immune system maintenance and upregulation is costly. Sexual selection intensity, which increases male investment into reproductive traits, is expected to create trade-offs with immune function. We assayed phenoloxidase (PO) and lytic activity of individuals from populations of the Indian meal moth, Plodia interpunctella, which had been evolving under different intensities of sexual selection. We found significant divergence among populations, with males from female-biased populations having lower PO activity than males from balanced sex ratio or male-biased populations. There was no divergence in anti-bacterial lytic activity. Our data suggest that it is the increased male mating demands in female-biased populations that trades-off against immunity, and not the increased investment in sperm transfer per mating that characterizes male-biased populations.The study was supported by the Australian Research Council (K.B.M. and L.W.S.) and a Royal Society Wolfson Research Merit Award (N.W.). We thank Sheridan Willis and Michelle Hares for assistance

Ancient gene drives: an evolutionary paradox

This is the final version. Available on open access from the Royal Society via the DOI in this recordSelfish genetic elements such as selfish chromosomes increase their transmission rate relative to the rest of the genome and can generate substantial cost to the organisms that carry them. Such segregation distorters are predicted to either reach fixation potentially causing population extinction, or more commonly, promote the evolution of genetic suppression to restore transmission to equality. Many populations show rapid spread of segregation distorters, followed by the rapid evolution of suppression. However, not all drivers display such flux, instead persisting at stable frequencies in natural populations for decades, perhaps hundreds of thousands of years, with no sign of suppression evolving or the driver spreading to fixation. This represents a major evolutionary paradox. How can drivers be maintained long-term at stable frequencies? And why has suppression not evolved as is the case in many other gene drive systems? Here we explore potential factors that may explain the persistence of drive systems, focusing on the ancient sex-ratio SR driver in the fly Drosophila pseudoobscura. We discuss potential solutions to the evolutionary mystery of why suppression does not appear to have evolved in this system, and address how long-term stable frequencies of gene-drive can be maintained. Finally, we speculate whether ancient drivers may be functionally and evolutionarily distinct to young drive systems.Natural Environment Research Council (NERC

Does mating negatively affect female immune defences in insects?

This is the final version. Available from Brill Academic Publishers via the DOI in this record.Immunity is an important mechanism of protection against pathogens and parasites. One factor that can influence immunity is mating. During mating, male-derived materials are transferred to females, and the physical contact also involves the potential risk of sexually transmitted infections, and wounding. Thus, mating can challenge a female’s immune system. This review focuses on exploring how immunity and mating interact in female insects. Although mating has been shown to cause female immune responses in several species, the responses do not always match the observed resistance to pathogens/parasites. Mating up-regulates female immune responses while female resistance is reduced compared to virgin females in some species, and vice versa in other taxa. We discuss why mismatches occur and why post-mating female resistance differs among species, and suggest that measured immune responses may not correlate with female resistance. Also, the mating system will play a major role. Polyandrous mating systems can generate intense post-mating sexual conflict, which can impose high costs of mating on females. Reduced female post-mating resistance may be due to direct suppression of female immunity by males. Alternatively, polyandry may increase the risk of sexually transmitted infections. If this is the major factor driving female post-mating resistance, females of polyandrous species should have higher post-mating immunity. To date, there are insufficient numbers of studies to fully answer the question ‘does mating negatively affect female immune defences in insects?’ To elucidate the links between immunity and mating in females, we need more studies in more species with varied mating systems.European CommissionMarie Skłodowska-Curi

Penis evolution across species: divergence and diversity

This is the author accepted manuscript. The final version is available from Springer Nature via the DOI in this recordThe penis is an incredibly diverse and rapidly evolving structure, such that even in closely related species that otherwise differ very little in their morphology, penis form can be highly differentiated. Penises are also much more complex than their fundamental function — sperm transfer — would seem to require. The rapid divergent evolution of male structures is typically the signature of traits under sexual selection and the current evidence suggests the penis is no different in this regard. Despite the general agreement that sexual selection is the main driver of penis evolution, many questions about penis evolution remain unresolved. Furthermore, the penis might be an ideal characteristic on which to focus in the drive to link phenotype with genotype

Fluctuating asymmetry, parasitism and reproductive fitness in two species of gammarid crustacean

Fluctuating asymmetry (FA), defined as random deviations from perfect bilateral symmetry, is assumed to reflect developmental instability. FA is predicted to increase in response to environmental stress, including parasite infection. In addition, based on theory we predict a higher FA in sexually selected traits, due to their greater sensitivity to stress. We investigated the relationships between FA, parasitism and reproductive fitness in 2 species of gammarid crustacean, incorporating both sexual and non-sexual traits. We tested the hypothesis that gammarids infected by vertically transmitted Microsporidia will display higher levels of FA than those infected by horizontally transmitted trematodes, because vertically transmitted Microsporidia can be present at the earliest stages of host development. We found little evidence for a relationship between FA and fecundity in Gammarus spp.; however, egg diameter for infected female Gammarus duebeni was significantly smaller than uninfected female G. duebeni. FA was not correlated with brood size in females or with sperm number in males. In contrast to our prediction, we report a lower relative FA in response to sexual traits than non-sexual traits. However, FA in sexual traits was found to be higher in males than females, supporting the theory that sexual selection leads to increased FA. Additionally, we report a negative correlation between FA and both trematode (Podocotyle atomon) and PCR-positive microsporidian (Nosema granulosis and Dictyocoela duebenum) infections and interpret these results in the context of the parasites’ transmission strategies. FA in G. duebeni and G. zaddachi appears to associate with trematode and microsporidian presence, although reproductive fitness is less altered by infection

Experimental evolution reveals divergence in female genital teeth morphology in response to sexual conflict intensity in a moth

This is the author accepted manuscript. The final version is available from Wiley via the DOI in this record The rapid evolutionary divergence of male genital structures under sexual selection is well documented. However, variation in female genital traits and the potential for sexual conflict to drive the coevolution between male and female traits has only recently received attention. In many lepidopterans females possess genital teeth (collectively, signa). Comparative studies suggest these teeth, involved in the deflation of spermatophores, may have coevolved with male spermatophore thickness via sexually antagonistic coevolution in a contest over the rate of deflation of spermatophores within the reproductive tract. We tested the hypothesis that sexual conflict should generate coevolution between genital teeth and spermatophore morphology by examining these traits under experimental manipulation of sexual conflict intensity. Using micro-CT scanning, we examined spermatophore and teeth morphology in populations of the Indian moth, Plodia interpunctella, which had been evolving for 110 generations under different adult sex-ratio biases. We found divergence in female signa morphology in response to sexual conflict: females from female-biased populations (reduced sexual conflict) developed wider signa. However, we found no evidence of coevolution between signa traits and spermatophore thickness as reported from comparative studies. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.Australian Research CouncilRoyal Societ