Japanilaisen kirjallisuuden englanninnokset : kustantamo Alfred A. Knopfin käännöshanke 1955-1977

Japanese literature in English translation has a history of 165 years, but before the end of World War II no publisher outside Japan had put out a sustained series of novel-length translations. The New York house of Alfred A. Knopf, Inc. published 34 English translations of Japanese literature between 1955 and 1977. This program was carried out under the leadership of Harold Strauss, who endeavored to bring modern writers of Japan to the stage of world literature. Strauss and most of the translators were trained in American military language schools. The aim of this dissertation is to study the publisher's policies and publishing criteria in the selection of texts, the actors involved in the mediation process and the preparation of the texts for market, the reception of the texts and their impact on the profile of Japanese literature. The theoretical backdrop is built around the distinction of product, process and function, viewed through the sociology of translation. This includes Pierre Bourdieu s constructs of habitus and capital and the Actor-Network Theory, as well as Karen Thornber s concept of literary contact nebulae in settings of less steeply inclined hierarchical relations. An examination of Japanese to English translations investigates the trends and practices which developed after the forced opening of Japan, drawing upon materials from the Knopf archives, including correspondence between the authors, the editor and the translators. Personal interviews and correspondence with the translators, autobiographies, and memoirs add to the archival records. Peritextual and epitextual data help trace events and actions within this period of Japanese literature in English translation and assist with the investigation into the reception and legacy of the texts. Findings clarify the policies and criteria employed at a major publishing firm. The role of the editor is explored in perhaps more detail than in earlier reports. Bourdieu's concepts of habitus and capital complement the notion of following the actors in Actor-Network Theory. Materials obtained from a translator and interviews with others add a qualitative perspective supported by the idea of literary contact nebulae. The Knopf translations have a wider circulation in Japan than in the English-language markets. Further, a number of the publications have proven more profitable in European languages. The long tail sales have kept the translations in print and in classrooms to this day. These findings point to new areas of investigation. Knopf was the most active publisher in a period where English translations were published for the general reader. The translations were later inscribed as text and research materials in the growing university curricula of the then-nascent fields of Japanese studies and comparative literature. Keywords: Japanese literature in English translation, habitus, capital, Actor-Network Theory, transculturation, translation historyJapanilaisen kirjallisuuden englannintamisella on 165 vuoden historia, mutta ennen toisen maailmansodan loppua ei Japanin ulkopuolella oltu julkaistu mittavaa sarjaa käännöksiä englanniksi. Newyorkilainen kustantamo Alfred A. Knopf julkaisi 34 käännöstä vuosina 1955-1977. Hanketta johti Harold Strauss, jonka tavoitteena oli tuoda modernit japanilaiskirjailijat maailmankartalle. Strauss ja valtaosa kääntäjistä olivat Yhdysvaltain asevoimien kouluttamia. Väitös tutkii kustantajan toimintatapoja liittyen tekstien valintaan, käännösprosessiin osallistuviin tahoihin ja teosten saattamiseen markkinoille sekä niiden synnyttämään kuvaan japanilaisesta kirjallisuudesta. Tutkimuksen teoreettinen kehys perustuu käännöstuotoksen, -prosessin ja -funktion erottamiseen; näitä tarkastellaan kääntämisen sosiologian kautta. Tämä tarkoittaa sekä toimijaverkkoteorian ja Pierre Bourdieun käsitteiden soveltamista että Karen Thornberin ideaa kirjallisten kontaktien nebuloista ympäristössä, jossa hierarkiset suhteet eivät ole kovin jyrkkiä. Tarkastelussa tutkitaan trendejä ja toimintatapoja, jotka kehittyivät Japanin avautumista seuranneina vuosikymmeninä. Väitös nojaa Knopfin arkistomateriaaliin, joka sisältää kirjailijoiden, kustannustoimittajien ja kääntäjien välistä kirjeenvaihtoa. Kääntäjien haastattelut ja heidän kanssaan käyty kirjeenvaihto sekä elämäkerrat ja muistelmat täydentävät tietoja. Peri- ja epitekstit auttavat tämän japanilaisen kirjallisuuden englannintamisen ajanjakson hahmottamisessa. Ne myös auttavat tekstien vastaanoton ja niiden synnyttämän perinnön tutkimisessa. Löydökset avaavat merkittävän kustantamon toimintatapoja. Kustannustoimittajan osuutta käsitellään kenties syvemmin kuin aiemmissa tutkimuksissa. Bourdieun konseptit habitus ja pääoma täydentävät toimijaverkkoteorian mukaista toimijoiden seuraamisesta. Eräältä kääntäjältä saatu aineisto sekä kääntäjien ja kirjailijoiden haastattelut tuovat tutkimukseen kvalitatiivisen näkökulman, jota ajatus kirjallisten kontaktien nebuloista tukee. Knopfin käännnöksillä on laajempi levikki Japanissa kuin englanninkielisillä markkinoilla. Useat eurooppalaisille kielille englanninnosten pohjalta tehdyt käännökset ovat myös olleet Knopfin julkaisuja kannattavampia. Pokkariversioiden myynnin ns. pitkä häntä on pitänyt käännökset julkaisulistoilla ja luokkahuoneissa nykypäivään saakka. Havaintojen perusteella voidaan nostaa tarkasteluun uusia tutkimusaiheita. Knopf oli aktiivisin kustantaja ajanjaksona, jolloin käännöksiä julkaistiin suurelle yleisölle. Teoksia on myöhemmin käytetty laajalti teksti- ja tutkimusaineistoina alati kasvaneilla Japanin tutkimuksen ja yleisen kirjallisuustieteen aloilla. Avainsanat: Japanilaisen kirjallisuuden englanninnokset, habitus, sosiaalinen pääoma, toimijaverkkoteoria, transkulturaatio, kääntämisen histori

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