<i>Saccharomyces cerevisiae</i> in the production of whisk(e)y

Whisk(e)y is a major global distilled spirit beverage. Whiskies are produced from cereal starches that are saccharified, fermented and distilled prior to spirit maturation. The strain of Saccharomyces cerevisiae employed in whisky fermentations is crucially important not only in terms of ethanol yields, but also for production of minor yeast metabolites which collectively contribute to development of spirit flavour and aroma characteristics. Distillers must therefore pay very careful attention to the strain of yeast exploited to ensure consistency of fermentation performance and spirit congener profiles. In the Scotch whisky industry, initiatives to address sustainability issues facing the industry (for example, reduced energy and water usage) have resulted in a growing awareness regarding criteria for selecting new distilling yeasts with improved efficiency. For example, there is now a desire for Scotch whisky distilling yeasts to perform under more challenging conditions such as high gravity wort fermentations. This article highlights the important roles of S. cerevisiae strains in whisky production (with particular emphasis on Scotch) and describes key fermentation performance attributes sought in distiller’s yeast, such as high alcohol yields, stress tolerance and desirable congener profiles. We hope that the information herein will be useful for whisky producers and yeast suppliers in selecting new distilling strains of S. cerevisiae, and for the scientific community to stimulate further research in this area

A Gamma Ray Burst with a 220 Microsecond Rise Time and a Sharp Spectral Cutoff

The Gamma Ray Burst GRB920229 has four extreme and unprecedented properties; a rise in brightness with an e-folding time scale of $220 \pm 30 \mu s$, a fall in brightness with an e-folding time scale of $400 \pm 100 \mu s$, a large change in spectral shape over a time of $768 \mu s$, and a sharp spectral cutoff to high energies with $\Delta E/E = 18$. The rapid changes occur during a spike in the light curve which was seen 0.164 s after the start of the burst. The spectrum has a peak $\nu F_{\nu}$ at 200 keV with no significant flux above 239 keV, although the cutoff energy shifts to less than 100 keV during the decay of the spike. These numbers can be used to place severe limits on fireball models of bursts. The thickness of the energy production region must be smaller than $\sim 66 km$, ejected shells must have a dispersion of the Lorentz factor of less than roughly 1% along a particular radius, and the angular size of the radiation emission region is of order 1 arc-minute as viewed from the burst center. The physical mechanism that caused the sharp spectral cutoff has not been determined.Comment: 20 pages, 3 figures, Submitted to ApJ

The Origin of Anomalous Low-Temperature Downturns in the Thermal Conductivity of Cuprates

We show that the anomalous decrease in the thermal conductivity of cuprates below 300 mK, as has been observed recently in several cuprate materials including Pr$_{2-x}$Ce$_x$CuO$_{7-\delta}$ in the field-induced normal state, is due to the thermal decoupling of phonons and electrons in the sample. Upon lowering the temperature, the phonon-electron heat transfer rate decreases and, as a result, a heat current bottleneck develops between the phonons, which can in some cases be primarily responsible for heating the sample, and the electrons. The contribution that the electrons make to the total low-$T$ heat current is thus limited by the phonon-electron heat transfer rate, and falls rapidly with decreasing temperature, resulting in the apparent low-$T$ downturn of the thermal conductivity. We obtain the temperature and magnetic field dependence of the low-$T$ thermal conductivity in the presence of phonon-electron thermal decoupling and find good agreement with the data in both the normal and superconducting states.Comment: 8 pages, 5 figure

Evidence that fin whales respond to the geomagnetic field during migration

We challenge the hypothesis that fin whales use a magnetic sense to guide migration by testing for associations between geophysical parameters and the positions where fin whales were observed over the continental shelf off the northeastern United States. Monte Carlo simulations estimated the probability that the distribution of fin whale sighting was random with respect to bottom depth, bottom slope and the intensity and gradient of the geomagnetic field. The simulations demonstrated no overall association of sighting positions with any of these four geophysical parameters. Analysis of the data by season, however, demonstrated statistically reliable associations of sighting positions with areas of low geomagnetic intensity and gradient in winter and fall, respectively, but no association of sighting positions with bathymetric parameters in any season. An attempt to focus on migrating animals by excluding those observed feeding confirmed the associations of sighting positions with low geomagnetic intensity and gradient in winter and fall, respectively, and revealed additional associations with low geomagnetic gradients in winter and spring. These results are consistent with the hypothesis that fin whales, and perhaps other mysticete species, possess a magnetic sense that they use to guide migration

Lipid content and biomass analysis in autotrophic and heterotrophic algal species

Biofuels are a form of renewable energy derived from living matter, typically plants. The push for biofuels began in order to decrease the amount of carbon dioxide (CO2) released into the atmosphere, as biofuels are essentially carbon neutral. The idea is the same amount of CO2 the plants took in to perform photosynthesis will then be released in the burning of the biofuels. Algae is an excellent source of biofuels because it grows quickly and is versatile in terms of the type of fuel it can produce. The two most common mechanisms for algae growth are heterotrophic or photoautotrophic. Heterotrophically grown algae uses an exogenous energy source, such as glucose, and uses the energy stored in it to perform cellular functions. Glucose also serves as a source of carbon and hydrogen, which are the primary elements found in lipids. In addition heterotrophic algae requires other nutrients for survival, such as water, vitamins, and inorganic ions. Algae grown photoautotrophically uses pigments in cellular photoreceptors to convert energy from light into adenosine triphosphate (ATP), an energy source, and to produce glucose. It also requires water, vitamins, and inorganic ions like the heterotrophic algae does. Some algal species, such as Chlorella zofingiensis, can be grown both photoautotrophically and heterotrophically. This algae species will be the subject of our experiment. Our experiment seeks to discover the most efficient way of growing algae to produce the highest amount of lipids. In addition to serving as a key component of cell and organelle membranes, lipids are a common form of high efficiency, long-term energy storage for living organisms, which is why lipids are extracted and processed to form biofuels. We propose growing one species of algae photoautotrophically by providing it with proper amounts of light but eliminating any glucose available. We will also grow the same species heterotrophically, with exogenous access to glucose, but eliminating all exposure to light sources. Finally, we will grow the same species mixotrophically with access to both glucose and light. Once the algae is grown, it will be harvested and analyzed for its lipid profile to determine which algae sample has the highest percent lipid content. We will also measure the percent biomass of each sample to determine which primary energy source leads to the greatest amount of total algal growth, percent organic material, and percent lipid content. We predict the algae grown with access to both sunlight and exogenous glucose will produce both the highest lipid content and the highest percent of biomass

Probing the Geometry of Warped String Compactifications at the LHC

Warped string compactifications, characterized by non-singular behavior of the metric in the infrared (IR), feature departures from the usual anti-de Sitter warped extra dimensions. We study the implications of the smooth IR cutoff for Randall-Sundrum (RS) type models. We find that the phenomenology of the KK gravitons (including their masses and couplings) depends sensitively on the precise shape of the warp factor in the IR. In particular, we analyze the warped deformed conifold and find that the spectrum differs significantly from that of RS, and present a simple prescription (a mass gap ansatz) which can be used to study the phenomenology of IR modifications to 5-d warped extra dimensions.Comment: 4 pages, 4 figures; v2. typos corrected, references added, improved resolution of Figure

Automated Problem Decomposition for the Boolean Domain with Genetic Programming

Researchers have been interested in exploring the regularities and modularity of the problem space in genetic programming (GP) with the aim of decomposing the original problem into several smaller subproblems. The main motivation is to allow GP to deal with more complex problems. Most previous works on modularity in GP emphasise the structure of modules used to encapsulate code and/or promote code reuse, instead of in the decomposition of the original problem. In this paper we propose a problem decomposition strategy that allows the use of a GP search to find solutions for subproblems and combine the individual solutions into the complete solution to the problem

Molecular hydrogen in the young starburst in NGC 253

Shocked molecular hydrogen has been observed around the nucleus of the nearby galaxy, NGC 253. This galaxy has a relatively modest luminosity (approx. 3 x 10 to the 10th power solar luminosities) and appears to have no distortions or companions that would indicate a possible interaction. The energy of the galaxy appears to be derived primarily from a starburst. Thus, our observations have caused us to examine the starburst process in some detail to identify how the molecular hydrogen is excited. It is proposed that the molecular hydrogen emission is produced by collisions of dense molecular clouds accelerated by supernovae explosions. Within the nucleus, this process occurs early in the life of the starbust. This suggest a sequence of nuclear starburst development; examples along this sequence from young to old would include NGC 253, M82, NGC 1097, and M31

Ca2+ transients are not required as signals for long-term neurite outgrowth from cultured sympathetic neurons

A method for clamping cytosolic free Ca2+ ([Ca2+]i) in cultures of rat sympathetic neurons at or below resting levels for several days was devised to determine whether Ca2+ signals are required for neurite outgrowth from neurons that depend on Nerve Growth Factor (NGF) for their growth and survival. To control [Ca2+]i, normal Ca2+ influx was eliminated by titration of extracellular Ca2+ with EGTA and reinstated through voltage-sensitive Ca2+ channels. The rate of neurite outgrowth and the number of neurites thus became dependent on the extent of depolarization by KCl, and withdrawal of KCl caused an immediate cessation of growth. Neurite outgrowth was completely blocked by the L type Ca2+ channel antagonists nifedipine, nitrendipine, D600, or diltiazem at sub- or micromolar concentrations. Measurement of [Ca2+]i in cell bodies using the fluorescent Ca2+ indicator fura-2 established that optimal growth, similar to that seen in normal medium, was obtained when [Ca2+]i was clamped at resting levels. These levels of [Ca2+]i were set by serum, which elevated [Ca2+]i by integral of 30 nM, whereas the addition of NGF had no effect on [Ca2+]i. The reduction of [Ca2+]o prevented neurite fasciculation but this had no effect on the rate of neurite elongation or on the number of extending neurites. These results show that neurite outgrowth from NGF-dependent neurons occurs over long periods in the complete absence of Ca2+ signals, suggesting that Ca2+ signals are not necessary for operating the basic machinery of neurite outgrowth

Systematic derivation of a surface polarization model for planar perovskite solar cells

Increasing evidence suggests that the presence of mobile ions in perovskite solar cells can cause a current-voltage curve hysteresis. Steady state and transient current-voltage characteristics of a planar metal halide CH$_3$NH$_3$PbI$_3$ perovskite solar cell are analysed with a drift-diffusion model that accounts for both charge transport and ion vacancy motion. The high ion vacancy density within the perovskite layer gives rise to narrow Debye layers (typical width $\sim$2nm), adjacent to the interfaces with the transport layers, over which large drops in the electric potential occur and in which significant charge is stored. Large disparities between (I) the width of the Debye layers and that of the perovskite layer ($\sim$600nm) and (II) the ion vacancy density and the charge carrier densities motivate an asymptotic approach to solving the model, while the stiffness of the equations renders standard solution methods unreliable. We derive a simplified surface polarisation model in which the slow ion dynamic are replaced by interfacial (nonlinear) capacitances at the perovskite interfaces. Favourable comparison is made between the results of the asymptotic approach and numerical solutions for a realistic cell over a wide range of operating conditions of practical interest.Comment: 32 pages, 7 figure